{"meta":{"name":"The Expanding Frontier","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/","version":"v3.8","dataVersion":"2026.10.28-v2.9-audit+v3.6-eggs+v3.7-domains11","generated":"2026-10-31","license":"CC BY 4.0","nodeCount":4284,"note":"Canonical public export. status: achieved | frontier (emerging now) | future (speculative/imagined). confidence.claimed=true means an unverified claimed result."},"nodes":[{"id":"stone_tools","name":"Stone tools (Lomekwian/Oldowan)","year":-3300000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":9,"summary":"First deliberately shaped tools, ~3.3 Mya at Lomekwi, Kenya.","verdict":"Advance: chipped stone flakes and choppers, made 3.3 million years ago, were the first external amplification of the body. Cutting meat and wood began a line of toolmaking that runs to every tool since.","dependencies":[],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stone_tool","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q479257"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#stone_tools"},{"id":"fire","name":"Control of fire","year":-1000000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Habitual use of fire by Homo erectus, ~1 Mya (Wonderwerk Cave), widespread by ~400 kya.","verdict":"Advance: controlling fire was the first energy revolution, bringing cooking, warmth, light and protection from predators. It later enabled ceramics, metallurgy and every combustion engine.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"africa","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#fire"},{"id":"cooking","name":"Cooking","year":-780000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Cooked food released more calories and may have fueled bigger brains.","verdict":"Advance: cooking with fire acted as an external stomach, releasing more energy from food and killing pathogens. It may have helped fuel the growth of the human brain and changed human anatomy and social life.","dependencies":["fire"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cooking"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#cooking"},{"id":"hand_axe","name":"Acheulean hand axe","year":-1760000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Symmetrical bifacial tools, the longest-used technology in history.","verdict":"Advance: standardized design that lasted a million years, a sign of shared mental templates.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Acheulean","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210774"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#hand_axe"},{"id":"spear","name":"Hafted spear","year":-500000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":7,"summary":"Stone points hafted to wooden shafts, ~500 kya (Kathu Pan).","verdict":"Compete: binding a stone point to a shaft let humans hunt big game and fight at a distance, a hundred thousand years before farming. Hafting itself, joining parts with glue and cord, was an early composite technology.","dependencies":["hand_axe"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#spear"},{"id":"clothing","name":"Clothing","year":-170000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Lice-genetics evidence dates regular clothing to ~170 kya.","verdict":"Advance: portable shelter that opened cold climates to humans.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Clothing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#clothing"},{"id":"language","name":"Language","year":-100000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Open-ended symbolic speech (date heavily debated, roughly 100–200 kya).","verdict":"Advance: spoken language linked minds, allowing teaching, planning and story. It made cumulative culture possible, the base of all later technology.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Language"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#language"},{"id":"pigment_art","name":"Symbolic art and pigments","year":-75000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Engraved ochre at Blombos Cave ~75 kya; cave painting by ~45 kya.","verdict":"Advance: externalized symbols, the precursor of writing.","dependencies":["language"],"region":"africa","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#pigment_art"},{"id":"bow","name":"Bow and arrow","year":-64000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":7,"summary":"Arrow points from Sibudu Cave, ~64 kya.","verdict":"Compete: a stored-energy weapon that let hunters kill at range for some 60,000 years, from Africa to Agincourt. It also gave the bow drill and the fire bow, early uses of a string to convert motion.","dependencies":["spear"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bow_and_arrow"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#bow"},{"id":"boats","name":"Boats and rafts","year":-50000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Humans reached Australia by ~50 kya, which required watercraft.","verdict":"Advance: boats and rafts were the first transport technology and carried people to Australia some 50,000 years ago. They made the planet reachable and trade possible.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#boats"},{"id":"needle","name":"Eyed needle","year":-40000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Bone needles, ~40 kya (Denisova Cave).","verdict":"Advance: fitted clothing let humans settle the Ice Age north.","dependencies":["clothing"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#needle"},{"id":"dog","name":"Domestication of the dog","year":-15000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Dogs domesticated from wolves by ~15 kya, possibly earlier.","verdict":"Advance: the first partnership with another species, for hunting and guarding.","dependencies":["language"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Domestication_of_the_dog"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#dog"},{"id":"pottery","name":"Pottery","year":-18000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Earliest pottery at Xianrendong, China, ~18–20 kya.","verdict":"Advance: storage and cooking vessels that set up surplus.","dependencies":["fire"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pottery"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#pottery"},{"id":"agriculture","name":"Agriculture","year":-9500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Cereal cultivation in the Fertile Crescent ~9500 BC; independent origins elsewhere.","verdict":"Advance: domesticating wheat, barley, rice and maize produced food surpluses that fed non-farmers. Surplus allowed specialization, settlement, writing and states, and also brought disease, inequality and war.","dependencies":["cooking","dog"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agriculture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#agriculture"},{"id":"animal_domestication","name":"Livestock domestication","year":-8500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs domesticated ~8500–7000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: taming sheep, goats, cattle and pigs gave steady meat, milk, wool and hides. Later draft animals pulled plows and carts, multiplying farm power, though zoonoses like measles came with them.","dependencies":["agriculture","dog"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#animal_domestication"},{"id":"settlement","name":"Permanent settlements","year":-9000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Jericho and Çatalhöyük among the first towns.","verdict":"Advance: permanent villages let people store grain, build houses and invest in fields over generations. Fixed capital made long projects possible, from granaries to temples, and set the stage for cities and states.","dependencies":["agriculture"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#settlement"},{"id":"irrigation","name":"Irrigation","year":-6000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Canal irrigation in Mesopotamia, ~6000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: collective water engineering that multiplied yields.","dependencies":["agriculture"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Irrigation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#irrigation"},{"id":"copper","name":"Copper smelting","year":-5000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Smelted copper at Belovode, Serbia, ~5000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: smelting copper from ore was the first metallurgy, fire applied to rock. It gave tools, ornaments and later alloys like bronze.","dependencies":["pottery","fire"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/6th_millennium_BC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34245","https://grokipedia.com/page/Smelting","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2748405"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#copper"},{"id":"sail","name":"Sail","year":-3500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Sailing boats on the Nile, ~3500 BC.","verdict":"Advance: sails harnessed wind for movement and trade on the Nile and Mediterranean. Sailing ships carried empires and global trade until steam.","dependencies":["boats"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sail"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#sail"},{"id":"wheel","name":"Wheel","year":-3500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Wheel and axle appear ~3500 BC in Mesopotamia and Eastern Europe.","verdict":"Advance: the wheel and axle made carts, potter's wheels and chariots. Rotary motion is the ancestor of the mill, the gear and the turbine.","dependencies":["animal_domestication"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wheel"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#wheel"},{"id":"plow","name":"Plow","year":-4000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Ard plows pulled by oxen.","verdict":"Advance: animal energy applied to food production.","dependencies":["animal_domestication"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#plow"},{"id":"writing","name":"Writing","year":-3200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Cuneiform at Uruk, ~3200 BC; Egyptian hieroglyphs about the same time.","verdict":"Advance: Sumerian cuneiform made speech and accounts persistent. It made law, history, science and institutional memory possible.","dependencies":["language","settlement"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Writing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#writing"},{"id":"counting","name":"Numerals and arithmetic","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Sumerian sexagesimal numeration.","verdict":"Advance: Mesopotamian numerals and arithmetic let people track goods, taxes and time. It became the base of accounting, astronomy and all quantitative science.","dependencies":["writing"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#counting"},{"id":"bronze","name":"Bronze","year":-3300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Copper–tin alloys start the Bronze Age.","verdict":"Advance: alloying copper with tin gave harder tools and the first metal weapons and armor. Tin trade networks spanned continents, and bronze armed the first empires.","dependencies":["copper"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bronze","https://grokipedia.com/page/2nd_millennium_BC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26257"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#bronze"},{"id":"state","name":"City-states and bureaucracy","year":-3100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":8,"summary":"Sumerian city-states and Egyptian unification.","verdict":"Compete: Sumerian city-states organized labor, taxes and armies through scribes and temples, building canals and walls no village could. That concentrated power built civilization's infrastructure and its first empires and wars.","dependencies":["writing","irrigation"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#state"},{"id":"chariot","name":"War chariot","year":-2000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Spoked-wheel chariots, Sintashta culture, ~2000 BC.","verdict":"Compete: speed as military dominance.","dependencies":["wheel","animal_domestication"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chariot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203788"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#chariot"},{"id":"calendar","name":"Calendar and astronomy","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Egyptian civil calendar; Babylonian astronomical records.","verdict":"Advance: synchronized agriculture and time itself.","dependencies":["counting"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Calendar"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#calendar"},{"id":"law_code","name":"Written law (Code of Hammurabi)","year":-1754,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Earlier codes exist (Ur-Nammu ~2100 BC). Hammurabi is the best known.","verdict":"Advance: Hammurabi's 282 published laws made rules predictable and enforceable across an empire, institutional technology that outlasts rulers. Written codes run through Roman law to modern civil codes and contracts.","dependencies":["writing","state"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Code_of_Hammurabi","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q93304"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#law_code"},{"id":"glass","name":"Glass","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Glass beads in Mesopotamia.","verdict":"Advance: glassmaking from sand and ash gave beads, vessels and eventually windows. It led to lenses, spectacles, microscopes and telescopes, the instruments of science.","dependencies":["pottery"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Glass"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#glass"},{"id":"pyramids","name":"Monumental construction","year":-2560,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"Great Pyramid of Giza, ~2560 BC.","verdict":"Drift: an engineering marvel aimed at a god-king's afterlife. Spectacle as an Imperative, though the logistics know-how carried forward.","dependencies":["state","counting"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#pyramids"},{"id":"alphabet","name":"Alphabet","year":-1050,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Proto-Sinaitic ~1800 BC, then the Phoenician alphabet ~1050 BC.","verdict":"Advance: the Phoenician alphabet used about two dozen symbols for sounds, making literacy easier. It spread to Greek, Latin and most modern scripts.","dependencies":["writing"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alphabet"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#alphabet"},{"id":"iron","name":"Iron smelting","year":-1200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Iron Age spreads from Anatolia ~1200 BC.","verdict":"Advance: smelting iron gave cheap, abundant metal from common ores for plows, axes and weapons. It ended the Bronze Age and armed the empires of Assyria, Persia and Rome.","dependencies":["bronze"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#iron"},{"id":"coinage","name":"Coinage","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Lydian electrum coins, ~600 BC.","verdict":"Advance: Lydian electrum coins stamped with a guaranteed weight turned trust into a portable token, making markets and taxes easier. Money of account outlasted every empire that minted it and underlies banking and finance.","dependencies":["state","iron"],"region":"near_east","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#coinage"},{"id":"geometry","name":"Euclidean geometry","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Euclid's Elements, ~300 BC.","verdict":"Advance: Euclid derived geometry from axioms by proof. It gave a template for rigorous reasoning for 2,000 years and the geometry used in astronomy and engineering.","dependencies":["counting","alphabet"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Euclidean_geometry"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#geometry"},{"id":"philosophy","name":"Greek natural philosophy","year":-585,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Thales to Aristotle: nature explained without gods.","verdict":"Advance: rational inquiry as a cultural norm.","dependencies":["alphabet"],"region":"europe","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#philosophy"},{"id":"democracy","name":"Athenian democracy","year":-508,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Cleisthenes' reforms, 508 BC.","verdict":"Advance: a governance experiment in distributing power.","dependencies":["law_code","alphabet"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Athenian_democracy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#democracy"},{"id":"hoplite","name":"Phalanx and professional armies","year":-650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Massed heavy infantry.","verdict":"Compete: organization as a weapon.","dependencies":["iron","state"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phalanx"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#hoplite"},{"id":"siege","name":"Siege engines and catapult","year":-399,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Catapult invented at Syracuse, 399 BC.","verdict":"Compete: applied mechanics aimed at walls.","dependencies":["geometry","hoplite"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#siege"},{"id":"aqueduct","name":"Roman roads and aqueducts","year":-312,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Appian Way and Aqua Appia, 312 BC.","verdict":"Advance: the capability early Rome chose to build, which outlasted the empire.","dependencies":["state","geometry"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Roman_roads"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#aqueduct"},{"id":"concrete","name":"Roman concrete","year":-200,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Pozzolanic concrete. 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The research also seeded inertial and magnetic fusion energy programs that are still chasing a power plant.","dependencies":["manhattan"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermonuclear_weapon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q625107"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#h_bomb"},{"id":"green_revolution","name":"Green Revolution","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":9,"summary":"Borlaug's semi-dwarf wheat; IR8 rice 1966.","verdict":"Advance: Borlaug's semi-dwarf wheat and IR8 rice, with fertilizer and irrigation, doubled and tripled yields in Mexico, India and Asia. 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war.","dependencies":["bigdog"],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitree_Robotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q106369174"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#unitree"},{"id":"slavery","name":"Slavery","year":-2100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Attested in the earliest written law codes of Sumer and Mesopotamia (Ur-Nammu c. 2100 BC, Hammurabi c. 1754 BC). 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Abolition was the advance.","dependencies":["state","law_code"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Slavery","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8463"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#slavery"},{"id":"abolition","name":"Abolition of slavery and the slave trade","year":1807,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Britain's Slave Trade Act of 1807 and Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, enforced by the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron.","verdict":"Advance: free labor and human dignity as institutional 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chemistry.","dependencies":["philosophy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alchemy","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39689"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#alchemy"},{"id":"gacha","name":"Gacha and loot-box monetization","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Puzzle & Dragons (2012) made randomized paid pulls the dominant model for mobile games.","verdict":"Dissipate: variable-reward slot mechanics tuned to \"whales\".","dependencies":["mobile_gaming"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gacha_game","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48835388"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#gacha"},{"id":"tube_porn","name":"Online video pornography (tube sites)","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Free streaming tube sites (YouPorn, Pornhub, 2006–07) operating at massive scale.","verdict":"Dissipate: a pure attention and dopamine sink with no production spillover.","dependencies":["www","social_media"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pornhub","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q936394"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#tube_porn"},{"id":"onlyfans","name":"OnlyFans and subscription porn","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"A London-founded creator subscription platform; adult content drove its boom from 2020.","verdict":"Dissipate: parasocial monetization of attention.","dependencies":["tube_porn","smartphone"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/OnlyFans","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61707579"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#onlyfans"},{"id":"critical_theory","name":"Critical theory (Frankfurt School)","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Horkheimer's 1937 essay \"Traditional and Critical Theory\".","verdict":"Drift per the framework: critique with no production function, which seeded later grievance scholarship.","dependencies":["philosophy","marxism_phil"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Critical_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q301751"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#critical_theory"},{"id":"gender_studies","name":"Gender studies","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Women's studies programs began in 1970 (San Diego State).","verdict":"Drift per the framework: academic effort aimed at grievance, not capability.","dependencies":["critical_theory"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gender_studies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1662673"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#gender_studies"},{"id":"identity_politics","name":"Identity politics","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The term was popularized by the Combahee River Collective statement (1977).","verdict":"Drift: zero-sum coalition sorting.","dependencies":["critical_theory"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Identity_politics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2914650"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#identity_politics"},{"id":"grievance_studies","name":"Grievance-oriented academic fields","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Identity-centered fields; the 2017–18 \"grievance studies\" hoax got several fabricated papers published.","verdict":"Drift per the framework: talent and funding steered into unfalsifiable scholarship.","dependencies":["critical_theory","gender_studies","postmodernism"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grievance_studies_affair","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57251522"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#grievance_studies"},{"id":"replication_crisis","name":"Replication crisis","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"The Open Science Collaboration (2015) replicated only about 36% of 100 psychology findings.","verdict":"Drift: incentive-driven unproductive research; the open-science reform response is the advance.","dependencies":["peer_review"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Replication_crisis","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25303778"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#replication_crisis"},{"id":"herodotus","name":"Historiography (Herodotus, Thucydides)","year":-430,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Inquiry-based history, starting with Herodotus's Histories.","verdict":"Advance: institutional memory and causal reasoning about societies.","dependencies":["alphabet"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Herodotus","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26825"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#herodotus"},{"id":"politics_aristotle","name":"Political science (Aristotle's Politics)","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A comparative study of 158 constitutions.","verdict":"Advance: systematic analysis of governance.","dependencies":["democracy"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Politics_(Aristotle)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69539"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#politics_aristotle"},{"id":"game_theory","name":"Game theory","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"von Neumann and Morgenstern, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.","verdict":"Advance: the math of strategy, auctions and mechanism design.","dependencies":["calculus"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Theory_of_Games_and_Economic_Behavior","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5226156"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#game_theory"},{"id":"econometrics","name":"Econometrics","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"The Econometric Society was founded in 1930 (Frisch, Tinbergen).","verdict":"Advance: quantitative economic measurement.","dependencies":["wealth_nations"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Econometrics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#econometrics"},{"id":"aec_licensing","name":"AEC reactor licensing regime","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 put civilian reactors under AEC licensing, which tightened through the 1960s–70s.","verdict":"Drift: it set up the licensing ratchet that the NRC inherited.","dependencies":["nuclear_power"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4817280"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#aec_licensing"},{"id":"alara","name":"ALARA radiation standard (linear no-threshold)","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":6,"summary":"\"As low as reasonably achievable\" dose rules, built on the linear no-threshold model, pushed safety spending far past any health benefit.","verdict":"Drift: an unbounded cost ratchet on nuclear plants.","dependencies":["aec_licensing"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/As_low_as_reasonably_practicable","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#alara"},{"id":"post_tmi","name":"Post-Three Mile Island regulatory ratchet","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":7,"summary":"After TMI (no deaths), new NRC requirements and backfits drove multi-fold cost overruns; dozens of plants were abandoned mid-construction.","verdict":"Drift: lost energy abundance. Stalled reactors were replaced by coal and gas for decades.","dependencies":["nrc_drag","alara"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three_Mile_Island_accident","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840847"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#post_tmi"},{"id":"bakewell","name":"Bakewell's selective breeding","year":1760,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Robert Bakewell's systematic inbreeding and progeny selection of sheep and cattle (Dishley, England).","verdict":"Advance: the scientific breeding of livestock.","dependencies":["animal_domestication"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Robert_Bakewell_(agriculturalist)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3499315"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#bakewell"},{"id":"artificial_insem","name":"Artificial insemination","year":1784,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Spallanzani's first successful artificial insemination, in a dog (1784).","verdict":"Advance: decoupling breeding from geography.","dependencies":["bakewell"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_insemination","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207122"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#artificial_insem"},{"id":"frozen_semen","name":"Frozen semen and livestock AI at scale","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Polge's glycerol cryopreservation (1949) made global dairy-sire programs possible.","verdict":"Advance: elite genetics spread across herds worldwide.","dependencies":["artificial_insem"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Semen_cryopreservation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7449215"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#frozen_semen"},{"id":"shull_hybrid","name":"Hybrid corn concept (Shull)","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"George Shull's pure-line hybrid maize experiments showed heterosis.","verdict":"Advance: hybrid vigor harnessed.","dependencies":["genetics"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison_Shull","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1507532"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#shull_hybrid"},{"id":"hybrid_corn","name":"Hybrid corn commercialized","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Wallace founded Pioneer Hi-Bred in 1926; by the 1940s hybrids covered the US Corn Belt and yields multiplied.","verdict":"Advance: the first industrialized seed.","dependencies":["shull_hybrid"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_Hi_Bred_International","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1417484"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#hybrid_corn"},{"id":"borlaug_wheat","name":"Borlaug semi-dwarf wheat","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Norin 10 dwarfing genes, bred in Mexico, went on to feed South Asia.","verdict":"Advance: often credited with saving about a billion people from famine.","dependencies":["hybrid_corn","haber"],"region":"mesoamerica","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Norman_Borlaug","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154824"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#borlaug_wheat"},{"id":"gm_crops","name":"Genetically modified crops","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Bt maize and Roundup Ready soy were commercialized in 1996.","verdict":"Advance: higher yields and less insecticide, slowed by regulation.","dependencies":["recombinant"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genetically_modified_crops","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1503477"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#gm_crops"},{"id":"genomic_selection","name":"Genomic selection in breeding","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Meuwissen et al. (2001) proposed it; US dairy adopted it in 2009, roughly doubling genetic gain.","verdict":"Advance: breeding driven by DNA prediction.","dependencies":["ngs","frozen_semen"],"region":"global","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_breeding","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17145598"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#genomic_selection"},{"id":"crispr_crops","name":"CRISPR-edited foods and livestock","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Japan's high-GABA tomato (2021) was the first CRISPR food on sale; the FDA approved PRRS-resistant gene-edited pigs in 2025.","verdict":"Advance: precision breeding.","dependencies":["crispr","genomic_selection"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genome_editing","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5533489"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#crispr_crops"},{"id":"eugenics","name":"Eugenics movement","year":1883,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Galton coined the term in 1883. It led to coercive sterilization laws (Indiana, 1907) and, at its extreme, Nazi racial policy; similar ideas recur across cultures.","verdict":"Dissipate and harm: state coercion dressed as science.","dependencies":["evolution","genetics"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Eugenics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170480"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#eugenics"},{"id":"pgt","name":"Preimplantation genetic testing","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Handyside's first PGD pregnancies (London, 1990).","verdict":"Advance: voluntary screening that prevents monogenic disease.","dependencies":["ivf","pcr"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1501356"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#pgt"},{"id":"polygenic_embryo","name":"Polygenic embryo screening","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Commercial polygenic risk scoring of IVF embryos (Genomic Prediction, 2019; Orchid, Heliospect).","verdict":"Emerging: voluntary selection for health, contested on efficacy and ethics.","dependencies":["pgt","genomic_selection"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polygenic_score","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28135712"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#polygenic_embryo"},{"id":"early_ev","name":"Early electric cars","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Morrison's electric wagon (1890); around 1900 about a third of US cars were electric.","verdict":"Advance as invention; it lost to cheap gasoline and the Model T.","dependencies":["battery","automobile"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_the_electric_vehicle","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4355707","https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_car","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193692"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#early_ev"},{"id":"model_t","name":"Ford Model T mass production","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Fifteen million built (1908–27); the moving line came in 1913.","verdict":"Advance: the car as a mass good.","dependencies":["automobile"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ford_Model_T","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#model_t"},{"id":"penicillin_mass","name":"Deep-tank penicillin fermentation","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"US/UK wartime scale-up (Pfizer, Peoria lab) took doses from grams to billions by D-Day.","verdict":"Advance: antibiotics for everyone.","dependencies":["penicillin","ww2"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Penicillin","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#penicillin_mass"},{"id":"planar_process","name":"Planar process (silicon mass production)","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Hoerni at Fairchild: batch-fabricated, passivated transistors, the basis of all ICs.","verdict":"Advance: transistors at scale.","dependencies":["transistor"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planar_process","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1520588"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#planar_process"},{"id":"dc3","name":"Douglas DC-3 airliner","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"The first profitable passenger airliner; more than 16,000 were built.","verdict":"Advance: flight as a mass service.","dependencies":["airplane"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Douglas_DC-3","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190211"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#dc3"},{"id":"iso_container","name":"ISO container standard","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"ISO 668 sizes standardized container shipping globally.","verdict":"Advance: cheap global trade.","dependencies":["containers"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Containerization","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428072"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#iso_container"},{"id":"gigafactory","name":"Battery gigafactories","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Tesla/Panasonic Gigafactory Nevada; CATL scaled further in China.","verdict":"Advance: batteries at terawatt-hour scale.","dependencies":["lithium_ion"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gigafactory_Nevada","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17182894"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#gigafactory"},{"id":"messmer","name":"Messmer plan (French nuclear buildout)","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"56 reactors in about 15 years; about 70% of French electricity became nuclear.","verdict":"Advance: proof that nuclear scales when allowed.","dependencies":["nuclear_power"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_power_in_France","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q377791"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#messmer"},{"id":"modrna","name":"Modified-nucleoside mRNA (Karikó–Weissman)","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Pseudouridine substitution stopped the immune reaction to mRNA.","verdict":"Advance: the key invention behind mRNA vaccines.","dependencies":["recombinant"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q88608397"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#modrna"},{"id":"haber_lab","name":"Haber's tabletop ammonia synthesis","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Haber demonstrated high-pressure catalytic ammonia synthesis in 1909.","verdict":"Advance: the invention that Bosch industrialized.","dependencies":["chemistry"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fritz_Haber","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#haber_lab"},{"id":"ivf","name":"In vitro fertilisation","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Louise Brown, born 1978 (Edwards and Steptoe, Oldham).","verdict":"Advance: assisted reproduction, now about 12 million births.","dependencies":["anesthesia"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/In_vitro_fertilisation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#ivf"},{"id":"prime_edit_in_vivo","name":"First in vivo prime editing in a human (Wilson's disease)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Prime Medicine dosed the first patient in a trial that rewrites DNA directly in liver cells.","verdict":"Advance: precision gene rewriting moves inside the body.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-03371-x"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#prime_edit_in_vivo"},{"id":"genie4","name":"Genie 4 multimodal world model","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-27","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"DeepMind's real-time interactive world simulator with generated audio and dialogue; 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Rev. Applied).","verdict":"Advance: cheaper quantum-limited sensors.","dependencies":[],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://adelaide.edu.au/about/news/2026/tiny-quantum-breakthrough-with-big-implications-for-medicine-and/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#squid_bare_loops"},{"id":"ca_fusion_sb925","name":"California SB 925 statewide fusion commercialization plan","year":2026,"date":"2026-09-30","approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First US state law directing a fusion siting, permitting and commercialization strategy.","verdict":"Advance: institutions clearing a path for an abundance technology.","dependencies":["fusion_ignition"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.catf.us/2026/10/california-takes-important-step-to-commercialize-fusion-energy/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ca_fusion_sb925"},{"id":"nhtsa_av_cyan","name":"NHTSA proposes AV-specific FMVSS 108 rules (cyan ADS lamps)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-23","approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Proposed rule rewrites lighting standards for driverless designs and standardizes optional cyan ADS indicator lamps.","verdict":"Mixed: regulation adapting to implementation.","dependencies":["robotaxi"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.theverge.com/transportation/1017435/nhtsa-autonomous-vehicle-cyan-lighting-fmvss"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#nhtsa_av_cyan"},{"id":"china_robotaxi_permits","name":"China grants paid robotaxi demo permits to Xpeng and VW JV","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-26","approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Guangzhou licence lets Xpeng carry paying passengers in driverless taxis, the step before commercial approval.","verdict":"Compete: US–China race for robotaxi deployment.","dependencies":["robotaxi"],"region":"china","sources":["https://www.scmp.com/business/china-evs/article/3372153/china-grants-permits-vw-joint-venture-xpeng-autonomous-driving-race-intensifies"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#china_robotaxi_permits"},{"id":"subsea_geothermal","name":"First subsea geothermal well and net-positive seafloor power plant (Endurance Adélie)","year":2026,"date":"2026-09-27","approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Seattle startup drilled the first offshore geothermal well at Axial Seamount and ran a 3-ton seafloor plant net-positive for ~8.7 s (peak 16.5 kW).","verdict":"Advance: a new energy frontier proven end to end, but only for seconds.","dependencies":["geothermal_enh"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.enduranceenergy.com/press/adelie","https://arstechnica.com/science/2026/10/startup-taps-underwater-volcano-as-energy-source-in-proof-point-test/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#subsea_geothermal"},{"id":"general_fusion_1kev","name":"General Fusion LM26 reaches 1 keV via magnetized target fusion","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-08","approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"LM26 exceeded 1 keV electron temperature with low-speed metal-wall compression, the first of three LM26 milestones (with 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directed energy moves from demo to base defense.","dependencies":["drones_mil","laser"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.militarytimes.com/industry/techwatch/2026/10/06/pentagon-names-4-directed-energy-weapons-for-counter-drone-program-at-us-bases/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#us_de_counterdrone_pilot"},{"id":"schaeffler_humanoid_factory","name":"Schaeffler \"humanoids making humanoids\" factory, Taicang","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-20","approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Six humanoids at five stations assemble actuators for next-gen humanoids; start of component mass 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US landers racing each other (and China) to the Moon.","dependencies":["starship"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-partners-accelerate-lander-development-for-2028-moon-missions/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#artemis_lander_conops"},{"id":"ai_crop_editing","name":"AI-guided transgene-free crop editing pipeline (Biographica + Hudson River)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-09","approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"AI gene-target ranking paired with transgene-free editing and regeneration, starting with tomatoes.","verdict":"Advance, early.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://www.agribusinesswire.com/articles/biographica-and-hudson-river-pair-on-ai-guided-crop-editing-697a98ea"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#ai_crop_editing"},{"id":"trepanation","name":"Trepanation","year":-5000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Neolithic skull drilling with signs of healing, e.g. Ensisheim, c. 5000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: the earliest surgery.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trepanning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q472953"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#trepanation"},{"id":"hippocrates","name":"Hippocratic medicine","year":-400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The Hippocratic Corpus: disease has natural causes; prognosis from observation.","verdict":"Advance: medicine separated from 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It became the template for proof-based knowledge, from Newton's Principia to formal verification.","dependencies":["aristotle_logic","geometry"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172891"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#euclid_axiomatic"},{"id":"stoicism","name":"Stoic ethics","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Zeno of Citium founded the school in Athens c. 300 BC; later Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.","verdict":"Advance: duty, self-command and a cosmopolitan natural law that fed Roman jurisprudence.","dependencies":["philosophy"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48235"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#stoicism"},{"id":"monotheism","name":"Ethical monotheism","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Hebrew prophetic monotheism consolidated in the exilic period (6th century BC); Christianity and Islam inherited it.","verdict":"Compete: ethical monotheism gave powerful cohesion and a universal moral law. It also became the basis of religious authority.","dependencies":["axial_age"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9159"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#monotheism"},{"id":"state_religion","name":"State religion as cohesion (Constantine to caliphate)","year":380,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Edict of Thessalonica (380) made Nicene Christianity Rome's state religion; caliphates fused religious and political authority.","verdict":"Compete: from Constantine to the caliphate, state religion bound large polities together. It later protected orthodoxy against inquiry.","dependencies":["monotheism","state"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_religion","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188213"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#state_religion"},{"id":"natural_law","name":"Natural law (Aquinas)","year":1265,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologiae (1265–74) held that moral law is knowable by reason.","verdict":"Advance: law above rulers, ancestor of natural rights.","dependencies":["stoicism","monotheism","aristotle_logic"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29524"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#natural_law"},{"id":"scholasticism","name":"Scholastic disputation method","year":1120,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Abelard's Sic et Non (c. 1120) set opposing authorities side by side; the quaestio–disputatio became university method.","verdict":"Advance: institutionalized argument and objection, the seed of academic critique.","dependencies":["aristotle_logic","monotheism","university"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41679"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#scholasticism"},{"id":"ockham","name":"Ockham's razor (nominalism)","year":1323,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"William of Ockham's Summa Logicae (c. 1323): do not multiply entities beyond necessity.","verdict":"Advance: parsimony as an epistemic rule for later science.","dependencies":["scholasticism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131012"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ockham"},{"id":"humanism","name":"Renaissance humanism","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Petrarch (1304–74) revived classical texts and the study of the human; spread by Erasmus.","verdict":"Advance: human agency and recovered sources, which fed art, science and reform.","dependencies":["printing_wood","stoicism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846933"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#humanism"},{"id":"machiavelli","name":"Political realism (Machiavelli's The Prince)","year":1532,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Written 1513, published 1532: power analysed as it is exercised, not as it ought to be.","verdict":"Compete: a clear-eyed theory of statecraft and rivalry.","dependencies":["humanism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Prince","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131719"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#machiavelli"},{"id":"reformation","name":"Protestant Reformation","year":1517,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Luther's 95 Theses (31 Oct 1517), spread by print.","verdict":"Compete: Luther broke the Church's monopoly on belief, spread by printing. It fueled a century of religious wars and later pluralism.","dependencies":["printing_press","monotheism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12562"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#reformation"},{"id":"galileo_affair","name":"Dogmatic suppression of inquiry (Galileo affair)","year":1633,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"The Roman Inquisition condemned Galileo in 1633 and kept him under house arrest; the Index banned Copernican books until 1835 (formally).","verdict":"Drift: authority punishing evidence; science moved north.","dependencies":["state_religion","heliocentrism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_affair","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2517983"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#galileo_affair"},{"id":"bacon_empiricism","name":"Baconian empiricism","year":1620,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (1620): induction from systematic observation and experiment.","verdict":"Advance: Bacon argued for experiments and systematic observation over authority. It became the epistemology of the scientific method and research institutions like the Royal Society.","dependencies":["ockham","humanism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2247456"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#bacon_empiricism"},{"id":"descartes","name":"Cartesian method and rationalism","year":1637,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Descartes's Discourse on the Method (1637), with the Géométrie appendix founding analytic geometry.","verdict":"Advance: methodical doubt and mathematized nature.","dependencies":["euclid_axiomatic","scholasticism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q731224"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#descartes"},{"id":"religious_tolerance","name":"Religious toleration","year":1689,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Locke's Letter Concerning Toleration and England's Toleration Act (1689); earlier Edict of Nantes (1598).","verdict":"Advance: ending religious war freed energy and talent for commerce and science.","dependencies":["reformation","social_contract"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toleration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183225"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#religious_tolerance"},{"id":"social_contract","name":"Social contract theory (Hobbes, Locke)","year":1651,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Hobbes's Leviathan (1651); Locke's Two Treatises (1689) made consent and rights the basis of government.","verdict":"Advance: Hobbes and Locke described government as a bargain with the governed. It shaped constitutions and democracy.","dependencies":["natural_law","machiavelli"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1326430"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#social_contract"},{"id":"natural_rights","name":"Natural rights (life, liberty, property)","year":1689,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Locke's Two Treatises (1689); later the US Declaration (1776) and the French Declaration (1789).","verdict":"Advance: Locke argued life, liberty and property are rights that predate the state. They became the basis of liberal constitutions and abolition.","dependencies":["social_contract","natural_law"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29677"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#natural_rights"},{"id":"rule_of_law","name":"Rule of law","year":1215,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Magna Carta (1215) bound the king to law; later Coke, Dicey (1885) named the principle.","verdict":"Advance: Magna Carta bound the king to law. Predictable rules made investment and dissent safe and grew into modern constitutions.","dependencies":["roman_law","common_law"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rule_of_law","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44918"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#rule_of_law"},{"id":"enlightenment","name":"The Enlightenment","year":1687,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"From Newton's Principia (1687) and Locke through Voltaire, Hume, Diderot's Encyclopédie (1751) and Kant (1784).","verdict":"Advance: Enlightenment thinkers promoted reason, science and progress as public values. It drove the modern growth era, democracy and human rights.","dependencies":["scientific_method","bacon_empiricism","descartes","printing_press"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12539"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#enlightenment"},{"id":"separation_powers","name":"Separation of powers (Montesquieu)","year":1748,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748), applied in the US Constitution (1787).","verdict":"Advance: institutional checks that slow capture.","dependencies":["social_contract","rule_of_law"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79896"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#separation_powers"},{"id":"smith_moral","name":"Adam Smith's moral philosophy","year":1759,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) grounded ethics in sympathy; it came before The Wealth of Nations (1776).","verdict":"Advance: a moral account of commercial society.","dependencies":["enlightenment"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1438448"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#smith_moral"},{"id":"kant","name":"Kantian ethics and critique","year":1781,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Critique of Pure Reason (1781); Groundwork (1785): the categorical imperative and human dignity.","verdict":"Advance: universal moral rules and the limits of knowledge.","dependencies":["enlightenment","descartes"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9312"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#kant"},{"id":"utilitarianism","name":"Utilitarianism","year":1789,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Bentham's Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789); Mill's Utilitarianism (1861).","verdict":"Advance: outcomes-based policy reasoning; it shaped legal and prison reform and cost-benefit analysis.","dependencies":["enlightenment"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160590"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#utilitarianism"},{"id":"nationalism","name":"Nationalism","year":1789,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"The French Revolution's nation in arms (levée en masse, 1793); Herder and Fichte gave it cultural form.","verdict":"Compete: mobilizes whole populations for state-building and for war.","dependencies":["enlightenment","printing_press"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6235"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#nationalism"},{"id":"imperial_ideology","name":"Imperial ideologies (civilizing mission)","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Manifest Destiny (1845), the \"white man's burden\" (1899) and mission civilisatrice justified expansion.","verdict":"Compete: rationalized conquest; won position at enormous human cost.","dependencies":["nationalism","state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7260"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#imperial_ideology"},{"id":"abolitionism","name":"Abolitionism (moral movement)","year":1787,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London, 1787); Quaker petitions; Equiano's Narrative (1789).","verdict":"Advance: moral argument and organizing that ended a vast extractive institution.","dependencies":["natural_rights","religious_tolerance"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Abolitionism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169390"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#abolitionism"},{"id":"weber_thesis","name":"Protestant work ethic (Weber's thesis)","year":1905,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905). This is a contested thesis, not settled history.","verdict":"Advance (as a thesis): beliefs can raise saving and work.","dependencies":["reformation"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q392937"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#weber_thesis"},{"id":"marxism_phil","name":"Marxism (as philosophy)","year":1848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":6,"summary":"The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867): historical materialism and class struggle.","verdict":"Drift per the framework: a theory of redistribution that, put into practice, abolished price signals.","dependencies":["enlightenment","utilitarianism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7264"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#marxism_phil"},{"id":"nihilism","name":"Nihilism","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Nietzsche diagnosed the \"death of God\" (The Gay Science, 1882) and the threat of nihilism.","verdict":"Drift: loss of shared purpose, an energy sink for a civilization.","dependencies":["kant"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80968"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#nihilism"},{"id":"popper","name":"Falsifiability (Popper)","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Logik der Forschung (1934): scientific theories must be falsifiable; The Open Society (1945).","verdict":"Advance: error correction as the core of science and politics.","dependencies":["bacon_empiricism","scientific_method"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220888"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#popper"},{"id":"hayek","name":"Knowledge problem (Hayek)","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"\"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" (American Economic Review, 1945): prices carry dispersed knowledge.","verdict":"Advance: explains why central planning fails and markets coordinate.","dependencies":["smith_moral","socialism_central"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Use_of_Knowledge_in_Society","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560872"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#hayek"},{"id":"kuhn","name":"Paradigm shifts (Kuhn)","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962): normal science, anomalies, revolutions.","verdict":"Advance with a caveat: describes institutional inertia in science, though it is often misread as relativism.","dependencies":["popper"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q951060"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#kuhn"},{"id":"postmodernism","name":"Postmodernism","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Lyotard's The Postmodern Condition (1979): incredulity toward metanarratives; Derrida and Foucault.","verdict":"Drift per the framework: dissolves shared standards of truth without a production function.","dependencies":["critical_theory","nihilism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47783"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#postmodernism"},{"id":"degrowth","name":"Degrowth","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"First international Degrowth conference in Paris (2008); roots in Latouche and the 1972 Limits to Growth.","verdict":"Drift: makes stagnation a goal.","dependencies":["postmodernism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrowth","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q611217"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#degrowth"},{"id":"effective_altruism","name":"Effective altruism","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Giving What We Can (2009) and the \"effective altruism\" name (2011); Singer, Ord, MacAskill.","verdict":"Advance, still emerging: evidence-weighted giving and attention to x-risk; the FTX collapse (2022) was a governance warning.","dependencies":["utilitarianism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_altruism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13489381"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#effective_altruism"},{"id":"progress_studies","name":"Progress studies","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Collison and Cowen's \"We Need a New Science of Progress\" (The Atlantic, 2019).","verdict":"Advance, still emerging: an explicit study of what makes civilizations advance.","dependencies":["enlightenment","popper"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_studies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130632651"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#progress_studies"},{"id":"aztec_sacrifice","name":"Aztec mass human sacrifice","year":1428,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Triple Alliance temple cult (c. 1428–1521) killed captives on a large scale, notably at the 1487 Templo Mayor rededication; counts are disputed.","verdict":"Drift: captives, labor and war effort consumed by ritual killing instead of production.","dependencies":["aztec_tribute","state_religion"],"region":"mesoamerica","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q583349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#aztec_sacrifice"},{"id":"flower_wars","name":"Flower wars (xochiyaoyotl)","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Ritualized wars among the Triple Alliance and Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco and Cholula from c. 1450, fought partly to take sacrificial captives.","verdict":"Drift: endless ritual war whose aim was capture for sacrifice, not settlement or trade.","dependencies":["aztec_sacrifice"],"region":"mesoamerica","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flower_war","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q886263"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#flower_wars"},{"id":"maya_sacrifice","name":"Maya ritual sacrifice and bloodletting","year":250,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Classic Maya rulers (c. 250–900) staged captive sacrifice and royal bloodletting to legitimize dynasties.","verdict":"Drift: elite ritual spending and captive-taking wars tied to dynastic cult.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"mesoamerica","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maya_civilization","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28567"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#maya_sacrifice"},{"id":"capacocha","name":"Inca capacocha child sacrifice","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Imperial Inca rite (c. 1450–1532) in which children were sent from across the empire and sacrificed on Andean peaks, e.g. the Llullaillaco mummies.","verdict":"Drift: state cult reinforcing central religious power through human sacrifice.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Capacocha","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5748174"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#capacocha"},{"id":"moche_sacrifice","name":"Moche warrior sacrifice","year":300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Huaca de la Luna burials (c. 100–800, Peru) document ritual combat and the sacrifice of captives.","verdict":"Drift: ritualized combat feeding a priestly sacrifice cult.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Moche_culture","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208188"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#moche_sacrifice"},{"id":"tophet","name":"Carthaginian tophet child sacrifice","year":-750,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Punic tophet burials of infant remains (c. 8th–2nd century BC, Carthage); whether they were sacrifices or cemeteries is contested.","verdict":"Drift if confirmed: offspring given to Baal Hammon cult. Contested evidence.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tophet","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1298788"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#tophet"},{"id":"mortuary_economy","name":"Egyptian funerary and mortuary-cult economy","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Old Kingdom royal tombs and endowed mortuary cults (c. 2600 BC onward) tied up labor, land and temple estates in serving dead kings.","verdict":"Mixed: a large drain on resources, but it drove surveying, logistics and stone engineering.","dependencies":["state_religion","pyramids"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830440"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#mortuary_economy"},{"id":"priestly_temple","name":"Temple-estate priestly power (Amun of Thebes)","year":-1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"By the New Kingdom, the Amun priesthood at Karnak controlled vast land and labor; the Theban high priests ruled Upper Egypt c. 1080 BC.","verdict":"Drift: priestly consolidation of land and labor outside productive investment.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amun","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58373"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#priestly_temple"},{"id":"crusades","name":"The Crusades","year":1096,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Papal-called wars for the Levant and beyond, 1096–1291.","verdict":"Compete: centuries of religious war, but they also opened trade and transmitted knowledge.","dependencies":["monotheism","state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crusades","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12546"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#crusades"},{"id":"islamic_conquests","name":"Early Muslim conquests","year":632,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Rashidun and Umayyad campaigns (632–750) took the Levant, Persia, Egypt, North Africa and Iberia.","verdict":"Compete: religiously framed expansion that built a large trade and learning zone.","dependencies":["monotheism"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Early_Muslim_conquests","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q275918"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#islamic_conquests"},{"id":"ottoman_ghaza","name":"Ottoman ghaza expansion","year":1453,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ottoman campaigns framed as holy war, from the 1453 conquest of Constantinople to the 1683 siege of Vienna.","verdict":"Compete: religiously framed conquest; it sustained an empire but tied the state to permanent war.","dependencies":["islamic_conquests"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ghazi_(warrior)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6128777"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ottoman_ghaza"},{"id":"inquisition","name":"Spanish Inquisition","year":1478,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Founded in 1478 under Ferdinand and Isabella; heresy trials, expulsion pressure on Jews and Moriscos, and book censorship until 1834.","verdict":"Drift: inquiry and dissent suppressed; skilled minorities expelled.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spanish_Inquisition","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184725"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#inquisition"},{"id":"alhambra_decree","name":"Expulsion of Jews from Spain (Alhambra Decree)","year":1492,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The 1492 decree expelled Spain's Jews, and the Moriscos followed in 1609–14.","verdict":"Drift: loss of merchants, physicians and artisans to rival economies.","dependencies":["inquisition"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alhambra_Decree","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1061030"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#alhambra_decree"},{"id":"wars_of_religion","name":"European Wars of Religion","year":1524,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"Peasants' War (1524) through the French Wars of Religion (1562–98).","verdict":"Drift: generations of confessional war destroyed people and capital.","dependencies":["reformation"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/European_wars_of_religion","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2490042"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#wars_of_religion"},{"id":"thirty_years_war","name":"Thirty Years' War","year":1618,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"1618–1648; German lands lost an estimated 20–40% of their population.","verdict":"Drift: catastrophic confessional and dynastic war, ended by the Westphalian settlement.","dependencies":["wars_of_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thirty_Years'_War","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2487"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#thirty_years_war"},{"id":"witch_trials","name":"European witch trials","year":1560,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Peak c. 1560–1660; an estimated 40,000–60,000 executions, plus Salem in 1692.","verdict":"Drift: moral panic, with courts and clergy hunting imaginary crimes.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16147871"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#witch_trials"},{"id":"savonarola","name":"Bonfire of the Vanities (Savonarola)","year":1497,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Florence, 1497: books, art and instruments were burned under the friar Savonarola.","verdict":"Drift: puritanical destruction of cultural output.","dependencies":["humanism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bonfire_of_the_vanities","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q654622"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#savonarola"},{"id":"iconoclasm_byz","name":"Byzantine Iconoclasm","year":726,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Imperial bans on religious images (726–787 and 814–842).","verdict":"Drift: a century of doctrinal conflict and the destruction of art.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Byzantine_Iconoclasm","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1018769"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#iconoclasm_byz"},{"id":"ghazali_incoherence","name":"Al-Ghazali's Incoherence of the Philosophers","year":1095,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Tahafut al-Falasifa (c. 1095) condemned Avicennan philosophical theses as unbelief; Averroes replied c. 1180.","verdict":"Drift (debated): it gave theological sanction to doubting philosophy and causal natural science.","dependencies":["house_wisdom"],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2736005"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ghazali_incoherence"},{"id":"madrasa_narrowing","name":"Madrasa curriculum narrowing","year":1100,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Nizamiyya madrasas (from 1067) centered law and theology; rational sciences were increasingly taught outside them.","verdict":"Drift: rote textual study crowded out natural philosophy.","dependencies":["ghazali_incoherence"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Madrasa","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132834"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#madrasa_narrowing"},{"id":"mutazila_suppression","name":"Rationalist (Mu'tazila) theology sidelined","year":848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"After the mihna ended under al-Mutawakkil (c. 848), traditionalist theology prevailed over Mu'tazilite rationalism.","verdict":"Drift: authority of reason in theology curtailed.","dependencies":["house_wisdom"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mu'tazilism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q668460"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#mutazila_suppression"},{"id":"ottoman_print_ban","name":"Ottoman restriction on Arabic-script printing","year":1485,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"Reported decrees of Bayezid II (1485) and Selim I (1515) blocked Muslim printing in Arabic script until Ibrahim Müteferrika's press (1727).","verdict":"Drift: about 240 years without mass literacy technology.","dependencies":["printing_press"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ibrahim_Muteferrika","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q561445"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ottoman_print_ban"},{"id":"istanbul_obs","name":"Destruction of the Istanbul observatory","year":1580,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Taqi al-Din's observatory was demolished in 1580 after clerical pressure linked it to misfortune.","verdict":"Drift: a working observatory razed on religious grounds.","dependencies":["taqi_clock"],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3348357"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#istanbul_obs"},{"id":"wahhabism","name":"Wahhabism","year":1744,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud.","verdict":"Drift: literalist doctrine allied with state power, hostile to innovation.","dependencies":["monotheism"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wahhabism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163140"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#wahhabism"},{"id":"petro_madrasa","name":"Petro-funded Salafi madrasa spread","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Gulf oil revenue funded mosques and madrasas abroad from the 1970s.","verdict":"Drift: oil wealth spent on exporting rote doctrinal schooling.","dependencies":["wahhabism"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Salafi_movement","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#petro_madrasa"},{"id":"iran_theocracy","name":"Iranian theocracy (velayat-e faqih)","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"The 1979 revolution set up clerical rule; universities were closed in the 1980–83 Cultural Revolution, followed by a sustained brain drain.","verdict":"Drift: clerical control of the academy and the loss of skilled emigrants.","dependencies":["monotheism"],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Guardianship_of_the_Islamic_Jurist","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1780396"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#iran_theocracy"},{"id":"taliban_edu","name":"Taliban bans on girls' education","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"1996–2001, then reimposed from 2021 (secondary schools, then universities in 2022).","verdict":"Drift: half the population barred from learning.","dependencies":["wahhabism"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taliban","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42418"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#taliban_edu"},{"id":"caste_rigidity","name":"Hereditary caste (jati) rigidity","year":-500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"Dharmashastra codes (e.g. Manusmriti, c. 200 BC–200 AD) fixed occupation and marriage by birth.","verdict":"Drift: talent locked into hereditary roles, limiting mobility.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caste_system_in_India","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130695"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#caste_rigidity"},{"id":"eight_legged","name":"Eight-legged essay examinations","year":1487,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Ming–Qing exams (formalized c. 1487, abolished 1905) required a rigid essay format on the Neo-Confucian canon.","verdict":"Drift: elite talent spent on memorization and form instead of science or engineering.","dependencies":["confucian_ethics"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Eight-legged_essay","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q340992"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#eight_legged"},{"id":"treasure_fleet_end","name":"Scrapping of the Ming treasure fleets","year":1433,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Zheng He's voyages ended in 1433; Confucian officials opposed them and the records were reportedly destroyed.","verdict":"Drift: ideological turning inward that abandoned blue-water capability.","dependencies":["haijin","confucian_ethics"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ming_treasure_voyages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q699127"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#treasure_fleet_end"},{"id":"literary_inq","name":"Qing literary inquisition","year":1661,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Peaking under Qianlong (1772–93); books were destroyed during compilation of the Siku Quanshu.","verdict":"Drift: censorship of writing and scholars.","dependencies":["confucian_ethics"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Literary_inquisition","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1203086"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#literary_inq"},{"id":"taiping","name":"Taiping Rebellion","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":5,"summary":"Hong Xiuquan's millenarian movement, 1850–1864; an estimated 20–30 million deaths.","verdict":"Drift: a religious civil war among the deadliest in history.","dependencies":["monotheism"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taiping_Rebellion","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192408"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#taiping"},{"id":"tibet_theocracy","name":"Tibetan monastic theocracy","year":1642,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The Ganden Phodrang under the 5th Dalai Lama (1642–1959); monastic estates relied on bonded peasant labor.","verdict":"Drift: a large share of men in monasteries and land held by monastic estates.","dependencies":["buddhist_ethics"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ganden_Phodrang","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17500081"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#tibet_theocracy"},{"id":"khmer_year_zero","name":"Khmer Rouge \"Year Zero\"","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"1975–79: cities emptied, schools, money and religion abolished; about 1.5–2 million deaths.","verdict":"Drift: an ideology that destroyed an educated class outright.","dependencies":["marxism_phil"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Khmer_Rouge","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191764"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#khmer_year_zero"},{"id":"china_cultural_rev_phil","name":"Anti-intellectual \"Four Olds\" campaign","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Red Guard campaign from 1966 against old customs, culture, habits and ideas; universities shut until about 1970.","verdict":"Drift: an ideological purge of scholarship and heritage.","dependencies":["marxism_phil"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Four_Olds","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1713721"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#china_cultural_rev_phil"},{"id":"cargo_cults","name":"Cargo cults","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":1,"summary":"Melanesian movements, e.g. the Vailala Madness (1919) and John Frum (1940s).","verdict":"Drift: ritual imitation of logistics instead of production.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cargo_cult","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22314"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#cargo_cults"},{"id":"monastic_preservation","name":"Monastic text preservation","year":529,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Benedict's Rule (c. 529) and scriptoria copied classical and patristic texts.","verdict":"Mixed advance: preserved learning, though copying favored scripture.","dependencies":["state_religion"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Monastery","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44613"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#monastic_preservation"},{"id":"puritan_thrift","name":"Puritan thrift and calling","year":1620,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"English and New England Puritans (c. 1560–1700) stressed literacy, frugal saving and diligent work in a \"calling.\"","verdict":"Mixed advance: capital formation and literacy, alongside moral policing.","dependencies":["reformation"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Puritans","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137073"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#puritan_thrift"},{"id":"jesuit_science","name":"Jesuit science and missions","year":1540,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Society of Jesus (1540): Clavius on the calendar, Ricci in Beijing (1601), and a network of colleges.","verdict":"Mixed advance: diffused astronomy and math while censoring Copernicanism.","dependencies":["scholasticism"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jesuits","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36380"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#jesuit_science"},{"id":"reformation_literacy","name":"Protestant scripture literacy","year":1530,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vernacular Bibles and the reading mandate; Swedish church literacy campaigns (1686).","verdict":"Advance: mass literacy as a religious duty.","dependencies":["reformation","printing_press"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Protestantism","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23540"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#reformation_literacy"},{"id":"sci_rev_ethos","name":"Scientific Revolution ethos (Royal Society)","year":1660,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Royal Society motto Nullius in verba (1660): authority yields to experiment.","verdict":"Advance: the norm that evidence beats doctrine.","dependencies":["bacon_empiricism","scientific_method"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Royal_Society","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123885"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#sci_rev_ethos"},{"id":"solar_passes_nuclear","name":"Solar overtakes nuclear in global electricity generation (H1 2026)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Ember data: solar ~1,564 TWh vs nuclear ~1,326 TWh in Jan-Jun 2026, just over 10% of world power; reported by BBC Future Oct 23.","verdict":"Advance: cheap solar plus batteries scales faster than any prior energy source; Jevons says demand follows.","dependencies":["solar_pv","solar_cheap","nuclear_power"],"region":"global","sources":["https://ember-energy.org/latest-insights/batteries-have-unlocked-the-era-of-anytime-solar/","https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20261023-how-solar-became-bigger-than-nuclear"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#solar_passes_nuclear"},{"id":"ibm_l_couplers","name":"IBM l-couplers link two 120-qubit Nighthawk chips at 99% transfer fidelity","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Four 80 cm cryogenic links joined two full Nighthawk R1 processors: 99.0% avg state transfer, 94.75% avg distant CZ gate, simultaneous cross-module entanglement.","verdict":"Advance: first credible path to scale superconducting QC across chips toward fault tolerance.","dependencies":["quantum_computing"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.ibm.com/quantum/blog/connecting-quantum-processors-with-l-couplers","https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.29986"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ibm_l_couplers"},{"id":"constellation_doe_uprates","name":"DOE conditional $5B loan for Constellation nuclear uprates (~1.1 GW)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-27","approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Conditional commitment to uprate and modernize eight plants in IL, MD and PA, adding nearly 1.1 GW; not yet a final loan.","verdict":"Advance: the cheapest new nuclear is squeezing more out of existing reactors.","dependencies":["nuclear_power"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-5-billion-loan-boost-nuclear-power-and-help-lower-costs","https://www.constellationenergy.com/news/2026/10/constellation-secures-conditional-doe-loan-commitment-of-up-to-5-billion-to-expand-nuclear-output.html"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#constellation_doe_uprates"},{"id":"gpt61_terra","name":"OpenAI GPT-6.1 Terra (computer-use model at half price)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-26","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Faster, cheaper cross-app computer-use model; ~50% lower API price, +15 pts on Agents' Last Exam vs GPT-5.6 Terra, 50.3% Terminal-Bench 4.0 (self-reported).","verdict":"Advance: agent capability per dollar keeps compounding.","dependencies":["reasoning_models","ai_agents"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://aisidaily.com/daily/ai-daily-2026-10-27/","https://www.scriptbyai.com/ai-model-release-calendar/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#gpt61_terra"},{"id":"broadcom_anthropic_spv","name":"$63B SPV to buy Broadcom XPUs and lease them to Anthropic","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-26","approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"BofA, Citi and Morgan Stanley (first lien) and Blackstone (second lien) fund a vehicle that buys Broadcom accelerators and networking for lease to Anthropic; deliveries from 2027.","verdict":"Compete: the frontier compute race is now financed like infrastructure; watch for leverage risk.","dependencies":["hyperscale_dc","ai_datacenters"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://investors.broadcom.com/news-releases/news-release-details/bank-america-blackstone-citi-and-morgan-stanley-announce","https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/banks-blackstone-form-63-billion-financing-vehicle-for-broadcom-ai-tech-0438f6d2"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#broadcom_anthropic_spv"},{"id":"china_ai_export_curbs","name":"China drafts AI export controls (23 technologies incl. frontier models, agents, chip design)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-16","approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Draft rules let foreigners use Chinese AI via cloud but require approval to transfer models, data, chip-design or datacenter tech; temporary registration already in force; adoption expected by year-end.","verdict":"Compete: tech-denial is now two-way; China keeps IP at home and sells access.","dependencies":["chip_controls","export_controls"],"region":"china","sources":["https://www.investing.com/news/economy-news/analysischinas-new-export-curbs-draw-a-line-around-its-ai-crown-jewels-4977600"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#china_ai_export_curbs"},{"id":"us_outbound_investment_rule","name":"US Treasury proposes expanded outbound investment rules (AI, chips, quantum, hypersonics, biotech)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-22","approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Implements the 2025 COINS Act: reporting or prohibition for US investment in sensitive tech in China and other countries of concern; covers AI incl. \"superintelligence\"; comment period before final rule.","verdict":"Compete: capital controls join chip controls in the US-China tech race.","dependencies":["chip_controls","export_controls"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.techrepublic.com/article/news-us-treasury-china-investment-rules-ai-biotech-chips/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#us_outbound_investment_rule"},{"id":"arrw_production","name":"AGM-183A ARRW hypersonic missile enters production ($694M)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-27","approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"USAF awarded Lockheed Martin a production contract for the B-52-launched boost-glide weapon (Mach 5+), its first hypersonic missile to reach production; quantities undisclosed.","verdict":"Compete: the US moves from hypersonic testing to fielding in the race with China and Russia.","dependencies":["hypersonic"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/4633841/daf-awards-arrw-production-contract-establishes-new-hypersonic-capabilities/","https://investors.lockheedmartin.com/news-releases/news-release-details/lockheed-martin-add-air-launched-hypersonic-missile-american/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#arrw_production"},{"id":"gxo_digit_expansion","name":"GXO expands Agility Digit humanoids to two more US sites","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-26","approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"After 100,000+ tote moves in Georgia, Digit deployments extend to Statesville NC and Lebanon TN from early 2027.","verdict":"Advance, incremental: humanoids are moving from pilots to multi-site deployment.","dependencies":["humanoids"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2026/10/26/3388115/0/en/agility-robotics-highlights-commercial-momentum-and-growing-enterprise-demand-for-digit-humanoid-robot.html","https://mfn.se/all/a/gxo-logistics-inc/gxo-and-agility-robotics-expand-partnership-to-accelerate-deployment-of-humanoids-in-u-s-operations-d1cb6bba"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#gxo_digit_expansion"},{"id":"amsterdam_wisselbank","name":"Amsterdam Exchange Bank (Wisselbank)","year":1609,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Founded in 1609 to give merchants sound, trusted bank money; with the Amsterdam bourse it anchored the Dutch financial revolution and the cheapest credit in Europe.","verdict":"Advance: honest money and deep markets let a small republic out-finance empires.","dependencies":["banking","joint_stock"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Amsterdam"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#amsterdam_wisselbank"},{"id":"glorious_revolution","name":"Glorious Revolution and British financial revolution","year":1688,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Parliament's supremacy after 1688–89 made Crown debts credible; a funded national debt, the Bank of England (1694) and a London securities market followed, cutting state borrowing costs.","verdict":"Advance: Parliament's control of taxation and the 1694 Bank of England made the state's debt credible, so Britain could borrow cheaply for decades. That cheap credit funded naval power and helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.","dependencies":["common_law","social_contract","amsterdam_wisselbank"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Revolution"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#glorious_revolution"},{"id":"usury_bans","name":"Medieval usury bans","year":1139,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"The Second Lateran Council (1139) condemned usury; church and secular bans on interest pushed lending underground or onto excluded minorities for centuries (Medici bills of exchange were partly a workaround).","verdict":"Dissipate: banning honest interest starved enterprise of credit. Predatory debt is drift too; the goal is cheap, honest credit.","dependencies":["banking_pre"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usury"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#usury_bans"},{"id":"ww1","name":"World War I","year":1914,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":7,"summary":"Industrial total war: tanks, military aviation, chemical weapons and mass mobilisation; millions dead and empires broken.","verdict":"Mixed compete: accelerated aviation, radio and mass production at an enormous cost in lives and capital.","dependencies":["machine_gun"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#ww1"},{"id":"ww2","name":"World War II","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":9,"summary":"Wartime programmes scaled radar, jet engines, rockets, nuclear fission, electronic computing and penicillin mass production; an estimated 70–85 million people died.","verdict":"Mixed compete: the largest burst of directed R&D in history (radar, jet engines, penicillin mass production, computing, the bomb), bought with some 70 million lives. Its wartime labs and procurement model became the template for postwar Big Science, DARPA and the military-industrial complex.","dependencies":["ww1","radar"],"region":"global","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#ww2"},{"id":"asimov_laws","name":"Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics (\"Runaround\")","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"First stated in the short story \"Runaround\" (Astounding, March 1942): a robot may not harm a human, must obey orders, and must protect itself, in that order of priority.","verdict":"Advance: fiction framed the machine-ethics question decades early; legislators still cite it.","dependencies":["rur"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three_Laws_of_Robotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23758"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#asimov_laws"},{"id":"korea_robot_charter","name":"South Korean Robot Ethics Charter (draft)","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"The commerce ministry (MOCIE) released a draft charter drawing on Asimov's laws in 2007; it was never formally adopted. The Korea Robotics Society proposed a new charter in 2018.","verdict":"Advance, marginal: the first national attempt, stalled as premature.","dependencies":["asimov_laws"],"region":"korea","sources":["https://doi.org/10.13180/icres.2019.29-30.07.004"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#korea_robot_charter"},{"id":"epsrc_principles","name":"EPSRC Principles of Robotics","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"UK research-council principles from a 2010 workshop, published 2011: robots are products, humans (not robots) are the responsible agents, and robots should not be designed to deceive.","verdict":"Advance: puts responsibility on people, not machines.","dependencies":["asimov_laws"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://epsrc.ukri.org/research/ourportfolio/themes/engineering/activities/principlesofrobotics/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#epsrc_principles"},{"id":"dod_3000_09","name":"US DoD Directive 3000.09 (Autonomy in Weapon Systems)","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Issued Nov 2012, reissued Jan 2023: autonomous and semi-autonomous weapons must let commanders and operators exercise \"appropriate levels of human judgment over the use of force.\" A policy, not a ban.","verdict":"Compete: human-judgment guardrails while military autonomy advances.","dependencies":["asimov_laws"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://media.defense.gov/2023/Jan/25/2003149928/-1/-1/0/DOD-DIRECTIVE-3000.09-AUTONOMY-IN-WEAPON-SYSTEMS.PDF"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#dod_3000_09"},{"id":"ep_robotics_2017","name":"European Parliament resolution on Civil Law Rules on Robotics","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Adopted 16 Feb 2017: cites Asimov's laws as directed at designers, producers and operators (they \"cannot be converted into machine code\") and asks the Commission for robotics law. Non-binding.","verdict":"Advance: the first parliament to put Asimov into a legal text, as a recommendation.","dependencies":["asimov_laws","epsrc_principles"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52017IP0051"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ep_robotics_2017"},{"id":"unesco_ai_ethics","name":"UNESCO Recommendation on the Ethics of AI","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Adopted by UNESCO member states in November 2021: the first global standard on AI ethics (human oversight, proportionality, do no harm). Non-binding.","verdict":"Advance: a shared global vocabulary for AI ethics, without enforcement.","dependencies":["ep_robotics_2017"],"region":"global","sources":["https://www.unesco.org/en/artificial-intelligence/recommendation-ethics"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#unesco_ai_ethics"},{"id":"un_laws_resolution","name":"UN General Assembly resolution 78/241 on lethal autonomous weapons","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First UNGA resolution on lethal autonomous weapon systems (Dec 2023): asks the Secretary-General for a report on their humanitarian, legal, security and ethical challenges. No ban.","verdict":"Advance, early: the issue reaches the General Assembly; binding rules remain out of reach.","dependencies":["dod_3000_09"],"region":"global","sources":["https://docs.un.org/en/A/RES/78/241"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#un_laws_resolution"},{"id":"eu_ai_act","name":"EU AI Act","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Regulation (EU) 2024/1689: prohibits some practices (Art. 5, e.g. social scoring and manipulative AI) and requires human oversight of high-risk systems (Art. 14). Binds providers and deployers, not machines.","verdict":"Compete: the first binding horizontal AI law; a standard that can create a market or add drag.","dependencies":["ai_policy","ep_robotics_2017","unesco_ai_ethics"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#eu_ai_act"},{"id":"creel_committee","name":"Committee on Public Information (Creel Committee)","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The US government's first wartime propaganda agency mobilized posters, films, press releases and tens of thousands of volunteer Four Minute Men speakers to build support for entering World War I.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["printing_press"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Committee_on_Public_Information"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#creel_committee"},{"id":"goebbels_propaganda_ministry","name":"Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Nazi Germany centralized control of press, radio, film and the arts under one ministry, pairing censorship with saturation messaging and cheap mass-produced radio receivers.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["radio","creel_committee"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#goebbels_propaganda_ministry"},{"id":"operation_infektion","name":"Soviet Active Measures (Operation INFEKTION)","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet bloc intelligence planted a claim that the US military created HIV in a small Indian newspaper, then laundered it through sympathetic outlets into worldwide coverage, a model of KGB dezinformatsiya.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["radio","printing_press"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/1-Operation_INFEKTION_Soviet_Bloc_AIDS_Disinformation_Campaign.pdf"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#operation_infektion"},{"id":"cia_covert_media","name":"CIA Covert Media Ops (Church Committee findings)","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"The Senate's Church Committee documented CIA relationships with journalists and covert subsidies to media and cultural fronts abroad, often grouped under the label Operation Mockingbird.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["television","printing_press"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Church_Committee"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#cia_covert_media"},{"id":"internet_research_agency","name":"Internet Research Agency (2016 US election)","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"A St. Petersburg troll farm used fake American personas, pages and ads on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter to inflame divisive issues and organize real rallies, per a 2018 US federal indictment.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["social_media","operation_infektion"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/grand-jury-indicts-thirteen-russian-individuals-and-three-russian-companies-scheme-interfere"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#internet_research_agency"},{"id":"disinformation_for_hire","name":"Disinformation-for-Hire Firms (Team Jorge)","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Commercial contractors sell managed fake-avatar networks, hacking and fake news pages to sway elections for paying clients; Israel-based Team Jorge claimed more than 30 campaigns worldwide.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["social_media"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Team_Jorge"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#disinformation_for_hire"},{"id":"ai_generated_influence_ops","name":"AI-Generated Influence Operations","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Operations from Russia, China, Iran and an Israeli political firm used language models to mass-produce comments, articles and personas; OpenAI found none broke out to large authentic audiences.","verdict":"Dissipate: effort spent manipulating attention instead of informing it.","dependencies":["gpt3","chatgpt","internet_research_agency"],"region":"global","sources":["https://cdn.openai.com/threat-intelligence-reports/threat-intel-report-may-2024.pdf"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ai_generated_influence_ops"},{"id":"platform_cib_takedowns","name":"Platform Takedowns and Attribution Research","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Platforms and researchers began removing and publicly attributing networks based on deceptive coordinated behavior rather than content, publishing regular reports naming operators.","verdict":"Advance: exposing coordinated deception protects the information commons.","dependencies":["social_media","internet_research_agency"],"region":"global","sources":["https://about.fb.com/news/2018/04/authenticity-matters/","https://grokipedia.com/page/Stanford_Internet_Observatory","https://dfrlab.org/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#platform_cib_takedowns"},{"id":"c2pa_provenance","name":"C2PA Content Provenance Standard","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"An industry coalition standard attaches cryptographically signed origin and edit history (Content Credentials) to images, video and audio so viewers can check where media came from.","verdict":"Advance: exposing coordinated deception protects the information commons.","dependencies":["gpt3"],"region":"global","sources":["https://c2pa.org/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#c2pa_provenance"},{"id":"poincare_perelman","name":"Poincaré conjecture proved (Perelman)","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Grigori Perelman proved the Poincaré conjecture using Ricci flow with surgery; the only Millennium Prize problem solved so far (prize declined, 2010).","verdict":"Advance: a century-old problem closed by one person working openly on arXiv.","dependencies":["calculus"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Poincar%C3%A9_conjecture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#poincare_perelman"},{"id":"nasa_aasm","name":"NASA Advanced Automation for Space Missions study (self-replicating lunar factory)","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A NASA/ASEE summer study designed a self-replicating lunar factory, the first engineering study of a von Neumann-style space factory.","verdict":"Advance: a serious engineering roadmap for self-replication off-world.","dependencies":["von_neumann","apollo"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#nasa_aasm"},{"id":"reprap","name":"RepRap self-replicating 3D printer","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Adrian Bowyer's open-source 3D printer that can print many of its own parts: the first practical step toward machines that copy themselves.","verdict":"Advance: open hardware that partly reproduces itself.","dependencies":["von_neumann"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RepRap"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#reprap"},{"id":"made_in_space_iss","name":"First 3D printer in orbit (Made In Space, ISS)","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Made In Space (now Redwire) printed the first parts in orbit on the ISS in 2014, a start on manufacturing in space.","verdict":"Advance: making things where they are needed, not launching them.","dependencies":["iss","reprap"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Made_In_Space"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#made_in_space_iss"},{"id":"nagel_bat","name":"\"What Is It Like to Be a Bat?\" (Nagel)","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thomas Nagel argued that subjective experience has a character that no purely physical description captures.","verdict":"Advance: philosophy of mind names the explanatory gap.","dependencies":["descartes"],"region":"americas","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/What_Is_It_Like_to_Be_a_Bat%3F"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#nagel_bat"},{"id":"gwt","name":"Global Workspace Theory (Baars)","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bernard Baars proposed that consciousness is information broadcast across a brain-wide \"global workspace\".","verdict":"Advance: a testable cognitive model of consciousness.","dependencies":["nagel_bat","eeg"],"region":"americas","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Global_workspace_theory"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#gwt"},{"id":"ncc","name":"Neural correlates of consciousness (Crick & Koch)","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Francis Crick and Christof Koch made the search for the neural correlates of consciousness a mainstream research program.","verdict":"Advance: consciousness becomes a lab question.","dependencies":["eeg","neuron_doctrine","gwt"],"region":"americas","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ncc"},{"id":"iit","name":"Integrated Information Theory (Tononi)","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Giulio Tononi's theory identifies consciousness with integrated information (Φ), giving a quantitative, falsifiable claim.","verdict":"Advance: a mathematical theory of experience.","dependencies":["ncc"],"region":"americas","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Integrated_information_theory"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#iit"},{"id":"iit_gwt_adversarial","name":"IIT vs GWT adversarial collaboration (Cogitate)","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Rival theorists pre-registered opposing predictions and tested them together; first results were announced in 2023 (published in Nature, 2025). Neither theory was fully vindicated.","verdict":"Advance: a new, cooperative way to settle scientific disputes.","dependencies":["iit","gwt","ncc"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Integrated_information_theory"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#iit_gwt_adversarial"},{"id":"lawrence_cyclotron","name":"Lawrence's cyclotron (Berkeley)","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Ernest Lawrence's working cyclotron at Berkeley (1931) put particle acceleration on a lab bench; his Radiation Laboratory became the model for team-based big science.","verdict":"Advance: the first big-science instrument.","dependencies":["quantum"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cyclotron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204469","https://grokipedia.com/page/Synchrotron","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q689863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#lawrence_cyclotron"},{"id":"bubble_chamber","name":"Bubble chamber (Glaser)","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Donald Glaser's bubble chamber made particle tracks visible and photographable, revealing the zoo of hadrons behind the quark model.","verdict":"Advance: seeing the subatomic world.","dependencies":["lawrence_cyclotron"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bubble_chamber"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#bubble_chamber"},{"id":"cern","name":"CERN founded","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Twelve European states pooled resources into one laboratory for particle physics; CERN later invented the World Wide Web (1989).","verdict":"Advance: science as a shared, peaceful international project.","dependencies":["lawrence_cyclotron"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CERN"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#cern"},{"id":"slac_linac","name":"SLAC two-mile linac (quark evidence 1968)","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The 3 km Stanford linear accelerator; its 1968 deep inelastic scattering experiments gave the first evidence that protons contain quarks.","verdict":"Advance: the inside of the proton revealed.","dependencies":["lawrence_cyclotron","bubble_chamber"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#slac_linac"},{"id":"tevatron","name":"Fermilab Tevatron (top quark 1995)","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The first large superconducting-magnet synchrotron; it found the top quark in 1995, completing the third quark family.","verdict":"Advance: superconducting magnets at scale.","dependencies":["slac_linac","cern"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tevatron"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#tevatron"},{"id":"lep","name":"Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP)","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"CERN's 27 km collider measured the Z and W bosons with precision and showed there are exactly three light neutrino families; its tunnel now houses the LHC.","verdict":"Advance: precision tests of the Standard Model.","dependencies":["cern"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#lep"},{"id":"esrf","name":"ESRF synchrotron light source","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"The first third-generation hard X-ray synchrotron, a shared European facility for protein, materials and chemistry structures.","verdict":"Advance: X-ray light as a shared utility for structural biology and materials.","dependencies":["w_synchrotron_radiation_212871","cern"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/European_Synchrotron_Radiation_Facility"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#esrf"},{"id":"iter_construction","name":"ITER (under construction)","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Thirty-five nations building the largest tokamak in Cadarache, France; the ITER Organization was founded in 2007 and first plasma is now planned for the 2030s.","verdict":"Advance: international cooperation on fusion at plant scale (still in progress).","dependencies":["cern","tevatron"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ITER"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#iter_construction"},{"id":"lhc","name":"Large Hadron Collider","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"The world's most powerful collider (13.6 TeV), built in LEP's tunnel by thousands of scientists from over 100 countries.","verdict":"Advance: the largest machine ever built for pure knowledge.","dependencies":["lep","tevatron"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Large_Hadron_Collider"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#lhc"},{"id":"higgs_discovery","name":"Higgs boson discovered (ATLAS and CMS)","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"The last missing particle of the Standard Model, found 48 years after it was predicted (Nobel Prize 2013).","verdict":"Advance: the Standard Model completed.","dependencies":["lhc"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Higgs_boson"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#higgs_discovery"},{"id":"icecube","name":"IceCube Neutrino Observatory","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"A cubic kilometre of Antarctic ice instrumented as a telescope; it identified the first high-energy astrophysical neutrino sources.","verdict":"Advance: a new window on the universe.","dependencies":["w_neutrino_detector_583152"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#icecube"},{"id":"ligo_detection","name":"LIGO detects gravitational waves","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"LIGO measured a length change one-thousandth of a proton's width to hear two black holes merge, a century after Einstein's prediction (Nobel Prize 2017).","verdict":"Advance: gravitational-wave astronomy is born.","dependencies":["w_gravitational_wave_190035","laser"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22683173"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#ligo_detection"},{"id":"nas","name":"Neural architecture search","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Neural networks that design other neural networks: Zoph & Le (ICLR 2017) used reinforcement learning to discover architectures that rivalled human designs.","verdict":"Advance: AI begins designing AI.","dependencies":["deep_learning"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neural_architecture_search"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#nas"},{"id":"dso_ai","name":"Synopsys DSO.ai (autonomous chip-design AI)","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Launched March 2020 as the first autonomous AI application for chip design: reinforcement learning searches the design space for better power, performance and area.","verdict":"Advance: AI in the commercial chip-design loop.","dependencies":["logic_synth","alphago"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://news.synopsys.com/2020-03-11-Synopsys-Advances-State-of-the-Art-in-Electronic-Design-with-Revolutionary-Artificial-Intelligence-Technology"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#dso_ai"},{"id":"alphachip","name":"AlphaChip: AI-designed chip floorplans","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Google's reinforcement-learning floorplanner (Nature, 2021) produces chip layouts in hours, and has been used in successive generations of Google's own TPUs, the chips that train its AI.","verdict":"Advance: AI helps build the hardware it runs on.","dependencies":["tpu","deep_learning","alphago"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03544-w","https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/how-alphachip-transformed-computer-chip-design/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#alphachip"},{"id":"ai_scientist_sakana","name":"The AI Scientist (Sakana AI)","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"An agent pipeline that generates ideas, runs experiments and writes ML papers end to end. Early and uneven, but a first open demonstration of automated research.","verdict":"Advance: automated research, end to end.","dependencies":["gpt3","reasoning_models"],"region":"asia","sources":["https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.06292","https://sakana.ai/ai-scientist/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ai_scientist_sakana"},{"id":"alphaevolve_stack","name":"AlphaEvolve improves its own AI stack","year":2025,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"The Gemini-powered evolutionary coding agent sped up a key kernel in Gemini's own training, recovered data-center compute through better scheduling, and contributed to chip design: AI improving its own stack.","verdict":"Advance: a measurable self-improvement loop.","dependencies":["alphaevolve","alphachip"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/alphaevolve-a-gemini-powered-coding-agent-for-designing-advanced-algorithms/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#alphaevolve_stack"},{"id":"openai_research_intern","name":"OpenAI \"automated research intern\" goal met","year":2026,"date":"2026-09","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"OpenAI reported that it reached its goal of a system that carries out multi-day research tasks under human direction, and is aiming for an automated AI researcher by March 2028.","verdict":"Advance (lab-reported): AI doing AI research under supervision.","dependencies":["ai_agents","ai_scientist_sakana"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://openai.com/index/research-acceleration-view-inside-openai/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#openai_research_intern"},{"id":"scrnaseq","name":"Single-cell RNA sequencing","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Tang et al. (Nature Methods, 2009) sequenced the full transcriptome of a single cell; droplet methods (2015) scaled it to millions of cells.","verdict":"Advance: biology measured one cell at a time.","dependencies":["ngs"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Single-cell_transcriptomics","https://www.nature.com/articles/nmeth.1315"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#scrnaseq"},{"id":"human_cell_atlas","name":"Human Cell Atlas","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"An open international consortium launched in 2016 to map every cell type in the human body.","verdict":"Advance: a reference map of the human body, cell by cell.","dependencies":["scrnaseq","human_genome"],"region":"global","sources":["https://www.humancellatlas.org/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#human_cell_atlas"},{"id":"cellxgene","name":"CZI CELLxGENE single-cell data platform","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"The Chan Zuckerberg Initiative's open, standardized corpus of tens of millions of single cells, used to train virtual-cell models.","verdict":"Advance: AI-ready open cell data.","dependencies":["human_cell_atlas","scrnaseq"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://cellxgene.cziscience.com/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#cellxgene"},{"id":"tahoe_100m","name":"Tahoe-100M perturbation atlas","year":2025,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Tahoe Therapeutics released about 100 million single cells profiled under drug perturbations, the largest open perturbation dataset at release.","verdict":"Advance: data on how cells respond, not just what they are.","dependencies":["scrnaseq"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://huggingface.co/datasets/tahoebio/Tahoe-100M"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#tahoe_100m"},{"id":"neuralink_voice_75wpm","name":"Neuralink VOICE speech BCI: ALS participant at 75 wpm, 5.8% WER in first week","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-28","approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"First published speed/accuracy figures from Neuralink's VOICE early-feasibility trial (NCT07224256): one ALS participant decoded attempted speech to text and voice at 75 wpm on a 125k-word vocabulary; presented at NEALS 2026 by PI Nader Pouratian.","verdict":"Advance, claimed: speech restoration approaching conversational rate, ahead of the 2023 Stanford result (62 wpm, 23.8% WER), but n=1 and company-reported.","dependencies":["brain_computer","neuralink_human"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://x.com/neuralink/status/2115534593147187397","https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07224256","https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mus.70436"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#neuralink_voice_75wpm"},{"id":"us_232_robotics","name":"US Section 232 proclamation: robotics and industrial machinery imports threaten national security","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-28","approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Trump concurred with Commerce's finding that imports of robots (incl. humanoids, quadrupeds, AGVs), industrial machinery and parts impair national security; Commerce and USTR get 180 days to negotiate, with tariffs, quotas or incentives held in reserve.","verdict":"Compete: robotics is now formally a defense-industrial-base chokepoint; reshoring pressure, with near-term cost risk for US manufacturers.","dependencies":["industrial_robot","humanoids","tariffs_2018"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2026/10/adjusting-imports-of-robotics-industrial-machinery-and-their-parts-and-components-into-the-united-states/","https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2026/10/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-adjusts-imports-of-robotics-industrial-machinery-and-their-parts-and-components-into-the-united-states/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#us_232_robotics"},{"id":"cxmt_hbm3e","name":"China's CXMT to start HBM3E production at 20-30% yields","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-28","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"CXMT has sampled HBM3E to domestic AI chip designers and plans limited production within ~2 months despite 20-30% yields (SK Hynix ~70%); tested performance is closer to SK Hynix HBM3.","verdict":"Compete: export controls force China to brute-force AI memory at high cost; it remains about a generation behind Korea.","dependencies":["hbm","dram","export_controls"],"region":"china","sources":["https://money.usnews.com/investing/news/articles/2026-10-28/exclusive-chinas-cxmt-to-start-advanced-ai-memory-production-despite-poor-yields-sources-say","https://www.trendforce.com/news/2026/10/28/news-cxmt-reportedly-ships-hbm3e-samples-eyes-production-within-2-months-despite-20-30-yields/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"implementation","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#cxmt_hbm3e"},{"id":"psiquantum_ocs","name":"PsiQuantum 8x8 silicon-photonic optical circuit switch for AI data centers","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-28","approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Spin-off from its quantum photonics platform: all-optical port-to-port switching with ~1.2 dB insertion loss, 40 dB crosstalk and <3 ms reconfiguration, no amplification; samples shipping, products planned.","verdict":"Advance, incremental: quantum-computing R&D paying out early in AI networking power and heat.","dependencies":["silicon_photonics","ai_datacenters"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.psiquantum.com/optical-circuit-switch","https://thequantuminsider.com/2026/10/28/psiquantum-optical-circuit-switch-ai-data-centers/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#psiquantum_ocs"},{"id":"ai_agent_mouse_surgery","name":"AI agent selects gene-therapy vector and performs stereotaxic injection in epileptic mouse","year":2026,"date":"2026-10-28","approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Exin Therapeutics (YC) says an AI agent chose among 19 vectors, computed brain coordinates from literature and drove a motorized rig to inject 250 nL into a mouse epilepsy model, with a veterinarian holding a kill switch; the mouse recovered.","verdict":"Advance, claimed: an early in-vivo \"lab in the loop\" step; a single demo with no peer-reviewed data yet.","dependencies":["gene_therapy_ada"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://www.ycombinator.com/companies/exin-therapeutics","https://x.com/OcanaSantero"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":"invention","url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#ai_agent_mouse_surgery"},{"id":"sulawesi_art","name":"Sulawesi cave painting (Leang Tedongnge)","year":-45500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Painted Sulawesi warty pig in Leang Tedongnge (Maros-Pangkep), dated to at least 45,500 years ago by uranium-series dating of overlying calcite. Claimed: a minimum age, and the dating method is debated.","verdict":"Claimed: possibly the oldest known figurative painting.","dependencies":["fire"],"region":"asia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leang_Tedongnge"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#sulawesi_art"},{"id":"lascaux","name":"Lascaux cave paintings","year":-17000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hundreds of polychrome animal paintings and engravings at Lascaux, France, c. 17,000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: sustained figurative art and composed scenes deep inside caves.","dependencies":["cave_pigments"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#lascaux"},{"id":"catalhoyuk_murals","name":"Çatalhöyük wall paintings","year":-6500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Plastered and painted house walls, hunting scenes and possibly the first landscape painting at Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, c. 6500 BC.","verdict":"Advance: art moves from caves into the home.","dependencies":["lascaux","settlement"],"region":"asia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#catalhoyuk_murals"},{"id":"schoningen_spears","name":"Schöningen spears","year":-300000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Nine or more carefully shaped wooden throwing and thrusting spears found with butchered horses at Schöningen, Germany, c. 300,000 BC (recent redating suggests c. 200,000 BC).","verdict":"Compete: the oldest complete hunting weapons known; date revised, so treated as approximate.","dependencies":["spear"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#schoningen_spears"},{"id":"jebel_sahaba","name":"Jebel Sahaba cemetery","year":-11500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Cemetery in Sudanese Nubia, c. 13,400 years ago, where many of the 61 individuals bear arrow and blade wounds, many healed, implying repeated violent clashes.","verdict":"Compete: the earliest well-attested evidence of recurrent group violence.","dependencies":["bow"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel_Sahaba"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#jebel_sahaba"},{"id":"nataruk","name":"Nataruk massacre","year":-8000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Remains of at least 27 people killed by projectiles and blows at Nataruk near Lake Turkana, Kenya, c. 10,000 years ago. Claimed: the massacre interpretation is disputed.","verdict":"Claimed: possibly the earliest evidence of inter-group warfare among hunter-gatherers.","dependencies":["bow"],"region":"africa","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nataruk"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#nataruk"},{"id":"jericho_walls","name":"Walls and tower of Jericho","year":-8000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Stone wall and 8.5 m tower built around Pre-Pottery Neolithic Jericho, c. 8000 BC. 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Zhi).","verdict":"Advance.","dependencies":["ai_math","lean"],"region":"china","sources":["https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.10248"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#tsirelson_counterexample"},{"id":"brennan_conjecture","name":"Brennan's conjecture proved by OpenAI; experts confirm and shorten","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"OpenAI preprints proved Brennan's conjecture and disproved Kraetzer's t^2/4 conjecture; Binder, Ivrii, Prause and Smirnov validated it and published a much shorter proof of a stronger statement.","verdict":"Advance: an AI proof checked and improved by leading analysts, the human-AI loop working as intended.","dependencies":["ai_math"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.23853","https://postcutoff.com/e/2026-10-16-brennan-conjecture-openai-proof-binder-ivrii-prause-smirnov/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#brennan_conjecture"},{"id":"nagata_conjecture_claimed","name":"Nagata conjecture: OpenAI proof under expert review","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"OpenAI released a proof that d > m*sqrt(r) for r >= 10 very general points in P^2; Tevelev's arXiv account explains it and notes it is not yet peer reviewed.","verdict":"Claimed: a 1959 algebraic-geometry conjecture, tracked as emerging.","dependencies":["ai_math"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.30050","https://aiprovedwhat.com/episodes/039-nagatas-conjecture-maximal-seshadri-constants/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#nagata_conjecture_claimed"},{"id":"erdos_hajnal_paths","name":"Erdős–Hajnal property proved for all paths P_t (with GPT-6 Astra)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Tung H. Nguyen (Oxford) credits GPT-6 Astra with key lemmas; a DeepMind internal model independently proved the P6 case with a Lean formalisation.","verdict":"Advance, claimed: multiple labs converging on the same 1977 problem.","dependencies":["ai_math","lean"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.24887","https://postcutoff.com/e/2026-10-17-erdos-hajnal-all-paths-nguyen-astra-deepmind/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#erdos_hajnal_paths"},{"id":"golomb_welch_claimed","name":"Golomb–Welch conjecture (perfect Lee codes) claimed, ChatGPT-assisted","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chen, Huang and Luo claim Lee balls of radius >= 2 never tile Z^n for n >= 3, settling the ~1970 conjecture; ChatGPT helped explore strategies and check calculations.","verdict":"Claimed: unrefereed, no expert reaction yet.","dependencies":["ai_math"],"region":"china","sources":["https://postcutoff.com/e/2026-10-25-golomb-welch-conjecture-perfect-lee-codes-chatgpt/","https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.34291"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#golomb_welch_claimed"},{"id":"euler_unforced_blowup","name":"OpenAI: finite-time blow-up for the unforced 3D incompressible Euler equations","year":2026,"date":"2026-09","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Companion result: smooth, compactly supported divergence-free initial velocity on R^3 whose unforced Euler solution develops a singularity in finite time; Lean 4 formalization in the same repo.","verdict":"Claimed: a long-open inviscid question, no independent expert verdict found yet.","dependencies":["navier_stokes_claim","lean"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://github.com/openai/NavierStokesAndEuler","https://openai.com/index/navier-stokes-solution/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#euler_unforced_blowup"},{"id":"openai_math_722","name":"OpenAI math batch: 721 manuscripts / 373 families / 17 fields (openai/math)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Current catalog 721 manuscripts / 373 result families across 17 fields (released Oct 6 as 722 / 372). Internal frontier model; drawn from an evaluation of ~4,000 problems; ~3 h ChatGPT-Pro-equivalent compute per result. Not Erdos problems or a benchmark: research manuscripts across 17 fields (number theory, algebraic geometry, PDE, TCS...) claiming results such as Milne's rationality conjecture, BSD in Selmer coranks 0/1, Hilbert 10 over Q, Kobayashi canonical ampleness, Brennan, Nagata. Oct 7: 3 withdrawn (sign error, incl. a \"rational Hodge conjecture for products of K3 surfaces\" paper), 14 revised; catalog now 721 manuscripts / 373 families (Oct 26). ~300 of 719 formalized in Lean per OpenAI (Zenodo audit could not reproduce that count); OpenAI says ~50% released unconfirmed. Overlap with human work exists (exact overlaps conjecture, solved concurrently by Kogler); no source gives a total of already-known results.","verdict":"Claimed batch, under community review; 3 refuted/withdrawn: scale is the advance, verification is the bottleneck (and AHM calls it dissipative).","dependencies":["navier_stokes_claim","ai_math","lean"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://openai.com/index/sharing-ai-progress-in-mathematics/","https://github.com/openai/math","https://raw.githubusercontent.com/openai/math/main/history.md","https://retractionwatch.com/2026/10/08/openai-withdraws-preprints-722-manuscripts-unsolved-math-problems/","https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-03196-8","https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23377481"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":true,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#openai_math_722"},{"id":"openai_math_withdrawn3","name":"OpenAI withdraws 3 math manuscripts a day after release (sign error)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Sign error in \"Algebraicity of Weil classes on split abelian eightfolds\" invalidated it and two dependents (Kuga–Satake for K3; rational Hodge for products of K3 surfaces).","verdict":"Dissipate: unreviewed mass release puts the checking burden on mathematicians.","dependencies":["openai_math_722"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://raw.githubusercontent.com/openai/math/main/history.md","https://retractionwatch.com/2026/10/08/openai-withdraws-preprints-722-manuscripts-unsolved-math-problems/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#openai_math_withdrawn3"},{"id":"axiom_cfsg_lean","name":"Classification of Finite Simple Groups fully formalized in Lean by AI agent swarm (Axiom)","year":2026,"date":"2026-10","approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Dozens of AI agents directed by Axiom mathematicians produced a sorry-free ~43.1M-line Lean proof of the \"Enormous Theorem\" (15,000 pages, 500+ papers) in 24 days, surfacing 34 noteworthy deviations from the literature and a gap in a published route to the Unbalanced Group Theorem, repaired with a new argument.","verdict":"Advance: the longest human proof is now machine-checked; AI makes formal verification of whole fields feasible.","dependencies":["ai_math","lean"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://axiommath.ai/research/the-enormous-theorem-formalized/","https://github.com/AxiomMath/CFSG","https://cfsg.axiommath.ai/"],"sourcePrimary":"primary","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#axiom_cfsg_lean"},{"id":"w_archimedes_screw_189155","name":"Archimedes' screw","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Machine used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. c. 3rd century BC This device, capable of lifting solid or liquid substances from a lower plane to a higher elevation, is traditionally attributed to the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse.","verdict":"Advance: Archimedes' screw pump lifted water for irrigation.","dependencies":["w_screw_pump_1047037"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Archimedes'_screw","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189155"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_archimedes_screw_189155"},{"id":"w_escapement_1137941","name":"Escapement","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanism in clocks. 3rd century BC Described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise Pneumatics (chapter 31) as part of a washstand automaton for guests washing their hands.","verdict":"Advance: Philo of Byzantium's escapement on a washstand (3rd century BCE) metered motion in steps, the key idea later used in every mechanical clock.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Escapement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137941"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_escapement_1137941"},{"id":"w_cella_827125","name":"Cella","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture, or a shop facing the street in domestic Roman architecture. 480–470 BC The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BC. Plan of ground floor of Temple A at Selinunte (c. 480 BC).","verdict":"Advance: The cella, the windowless inner room that held the god's statue, set the core plan of the Greek temple that architects still borrow for civic buildings.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cella","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q827125"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_cella_827125"},{"id":"w_gymnasium_504400","name":"Gymnasium","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient Greek training facility. 4th century BC A shower room for female athletes with plumbed-in water is depicted on an Athenian vase. A whole complex of shower-baths was also found in a 2nd-century BC gymnasium at Pergamum.","verdict":"Advance: The Greek gymnasium paired athletic training with lectures; Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum grew out of these gyms, as did the word for school in several European languages.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504400"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_gymnasium_504400"},{"id":"w_canal_of_the_pharaohs_959073","name":"Canal of the Pharaohs","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Forerunner of the Suez Canal. early 3rd century BC Built into Ancient Suez Canal under Ptolemy II (283–246 BC).","verdict":"Advance: Ptolemy II's canal linking the Nile to the Red Sea (c. 270 BCE) was an ancient Suez, joining Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Canal_of_the_Pharaohs","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959073"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_canal_of_the_pharaohs_959073"},{"id":"w_lighthouse_39715","name":"Lighthouse","year":-280,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Structure designed to emit light to aid navigation. 500 BC: Lighthouse in Greece.","verdict":"Advance: maritime safety infrastructure; the Pharos of Alexandria (c. 280 BC) is the archetype.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lighthouse","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39715"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lighthouse_39715"},{"id":"w_milestone_10145","name":"Milestone","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numbered marker mostly along a road or sometimes also at a boundary. c. 3rd century BC Odometer, a device used in the late Hellenistic time and by Romans for indicating the distance traveled by a vehicle. It was invented sometime in the 3rd century BC.","verdict":"Advance: Roman milestones and Archimedes-era odometers measured roads, so travellers and armies could plan distances reliably.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Milestone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10145"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_milestone_10145"},{"id":"w_chain_drive_950318","name":"Chain drive","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Way of transmitting mechanical power. 3rd century BC First described by Philo of Byzantium, the device powered a repeating crossbow, the first known of its kind.","verdict":"Advance: Philo's chain drive in a repeating crossbow (3rd century BCE) transmitted power by links, the principle of bicycles, engines and conveyors.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chain_drive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q950318"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_chain_drive_950318"},{"id":"w_fire_hose_1410061","name":"Fire hose","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Flexible tube used for delivering water or foam at high pressure, to fight fires. 3rd century BC Universal mechanical principle that was discovered and first applied by the engineer Ctesibius in his double-action piston pump, which was later developed further by Heron to a fire hose (see below).","verdict":"Advance: Ctesibius's force pump, used by Roman firefighting vigiles, threw pressurized water at flames; leather hoses followed in Amsterdam in 1673.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fire_hose","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1410061"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_fire_hose_1410061"},{"id":"w_syracusia_2464366","name":"Syracusia","year":-240,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient Greek ship. c. 240 BC: First recorded for Syracusia as well as other Syracusan (merchant) ships under Hiero II of Syracuse","verdict":"Advance: Archimedes' Syracusia (c. 240 BCE), perhaps the largest ancient freighter, carried about 1,600 tonnes of grain and showed what Hellenistic shipwrights could achieve.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Syracusia","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2464366"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_syracusia_2464366"},{"id":"w_gimbal_1146104","name":"Gimbal","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Support allowing rotation. 3rd century BC The inventor Philo of Byzantium (280–220 BC) described an eight-sided ink pot with an opening on each side, which can be turned so that any face is on top, dip in a pen and ink it-yet the ink never runs out through the hol…","verdict":"Advance: Philo's self-levelling inkpot used nested rings, the gimbal behind ship compasses, gyroscopes and camera stabilizers.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gimbal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1146104"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_gimbal_1146104"},{"id":"w_dry_dock_811177","name":"Dry dock","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Waterside basin that can be sealed and pumped dry to allow work on a vessel. Late 3rd century BC: Dry dock under Ptolemy IV (221–205 BC) in Hellenistic Egypt","verdict":"Advance: Ptolemaic Egypt built a dry dock for the giant Tessarakonteres, and docks let shipwrights work on hulls out of water.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dry_dock","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q811177"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_dry_dock_811177"},{"id":"w_vending_machine_211584","name":"Vending machine","year":-50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Machine which automatically dispenses beverages, food or non-food products to customers after a payment. 1st century BC The first vending machine was described by Heron of Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed a fixed amount of holy water. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever.","verdict":"Advance: Heron's coin-operated holy-water dispenser (1st century CE) was the first vending machine, automating a sale with a lever and a weight.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vending_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Greek_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211584"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_vending_machine_211584"},{"id":"w_julian_calendar_11184","name":"Julian calendar","year":-45,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. They made use of the Julian Calendar .","verdict":"Advance: a solar calendar that standardized time across an empire.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Julian_calendar","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11184"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_julian_calendar_11184"},{"id":"w_hermetica_14941935","name":"Hermetica","year":750,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Egyptian-Greek wisdom texts from the 2nd century AD. Sulfur-mercury theory of metals: First attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's Sirr al-khalīqa (\"The Secret of Creation\", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c.","verdict":"Advance: The Hermetic corpus carried Hellenistic Egyptian cosmology into Islamic and Renaissance thought and inspired the alchemists whose lab work grew into chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hermetica","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14941935"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_hermetica_14941935"},{"id":"w_lusterware_618614","name":"Lusterware","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pottery with a reflective or iridescent surface. Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in Persia and Syria. Earlier uses of lustre are known.","verdict":"Advance: Abbasid potters in Basra fired metallic glazes that shimmer like gold, a nanoparticle effect understood only in the 21st century.","dependencies":["w_ceramic_45621"],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lustreware","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_lusterware_618614"},{"id":"w_alembic_845242","name":"Alembic","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distilling chemicals.","verdict":"Advance: The alchemist's still, ancestor of chemical distillation.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alembic","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q845242"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_alembic_845242"},{"id":"w_music_sequencer_646683","name":"Music sequencer","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device or application software that can record, edit, or play back music.","verdict":"Advance: The Banu Musa brothers' 9th-century Baghdad flute player ran from a pinned cylinder, the first programmable machine and an ancestor of sequencers and of code.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Music_sequencer","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q646683"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_music_sequencer_646683"},{"id":"w_kamal_674415","name":"Kamal","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Celestial navigation device that determines latitude. Kamal: The kamal originated with Arab navigators of the late 9th century. The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation.","verdict":"Advance: The kamal, a knotted cord and wooden card, let Arab and Indian Ocean pilots fix latitude from Polaris, enabling direct monsoon crossings.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kamal_(navigation)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q674415"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kamal_674415"},{"id":"w_sine_quadrant_7522373","name":"Sine quadrant","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Type of quadrant used by medieval Arabic astronomers. Sine quadrant: A type of quadrant used by medieval Arabic astronomers, it was described by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Khwarizmi's sine quadrant (9th century) let astronomers compute trigonometric values by hand.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_quadrant","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7522373"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sine_quadrant_7522373"},{"id":"w_scimitar_121308","name":"Scimitar","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Backsword or sabre with a curved blade. Scimitar: The curved sword or \"scimitar\" was widespread throughout the Middle East from at least the Ottoman period, with early examples dating to Abbasid era (9th century) Khurasan.","verdict":"Compete: Curved sabres from Central Asia cut efficiently from horseback and came to define cavalry from the Seljuks to Napoleon's hussars.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scimitar","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121308"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_scimitar_121308"},{"id":"w_windpump_1730505","name":"Windpump","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Wind-powered pump. Windpump: Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.","verdict":"Advance: Persian and Afghan vertical-axis windmills pumped water and ground grain by the 9th century; later the US prairie windpump watered the railroads and ranches.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Windpump","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1730505"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_windpump_1730505"},{"id":"w_alhazen_s_problem_4724471","name":"Alhazen's problem","year":1021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical problem in geometrical optics. 1021 – Ibn al-Haytham formulated and solved Alhazen's problem geometrically.","verdict":"Advance: Ibn al-Haytham's reflection problem; geometric optics matures.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alhazen's_problem","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4724471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_alhazen_s_problem_4724471"},{"id":"w_decimal_81365","name":"Decimal","year":-3100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Numeral system with ten as its base. c. 3100 BC – Egypt, the earliest known decimal system allows indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian decimal hieroglyphs (c. 3100 BCE) counted in powers of ten, the base still used in nearly all human arithmetic.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Decimal","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81365"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_decimal_81365"},{"id":"w_fountain_pen_192401","name":"Fountain pen","year":953,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Writing implement. Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d.","verdict":"Advance: The Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz asked in 953 for a pen that would not stain his hands, reportedly getting a reservoir pen (claimed), a forerunner of the fountain pen.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fountain_pen","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fountain_pen_192401"},{"id":"w_sextant_179430","name":"Sextant","year":994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Angle measurement navigational instrument. Sextant and mural instrument: The first known mural sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Khujandi's mural sextant (994) measured Earth's tilt; later handheld sextants guided navigators.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sextant","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179430"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sextant_179430"},{"id":"w_shale_oil_extraction_3299156","name":"Shale oil extraction","year":950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process for extracting oil from shale rock. Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from \"some kind of bituminous shale\".","verdict":"Advance: Masawaih al-Mardini's 10th-century distillation of oil shale (claimed) foreshadowed today's shale-oil and oil-sand extraction.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shale_oil_extraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3299156"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_shale_oil_extraction_3299156"},{"id":"w_snell_s_law_208391","name":"Snell's law","year":984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Formula deriving the angle of refraction of light between two mediums. Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984.","verdict":"Advance: Ibn Sahl's 984 law of refraction was rediscovered by Snell in 1621, the basis of lens design.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Snell's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_snell_s_law_208391"},{"id":"w_fritware_1458831","name":"Fritware","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of pottery in which frit (ground glass) is added to clay to reduce its fusion temperature. Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for \"fritware\" dating to c.","verdict":"Advance: Persian fritware, adding ground glass to clay, imitated Chinese porcelain and produced the brilliant Iznik and Kashan wares.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fritware","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1458831"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_fritware_1458831"},{"id":"w_turret_clock_188298","name":"Turret clock","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Clock that is larger than a domestic clock and has a mechanism designed to drive a visual time indicator such as dials and or bells as a public amenity. Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century.","verdict":"Advance: Public turret clocks rang church and town hours, synchronizing communal life and spreading mechanical timekeeping through Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turret_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188298"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_turret_clock_188298"},{"id":"w_naqareh_1898734","name":"Naqareh","year":1250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Middle Eastern drum with a rounded back and a hide head. Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most timpani, brought to 13th-century Continental Europe by Crusaders and Saracens.","verdict":"Advance: Paired kettle drums from the Middle East, adopted by Crusader-era Europe as \"nakers\", became the orchestral timpani.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Naqareh","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1898734"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_naqareh_1898734"},{"id":"w_sundial_80793","name":"Sundial","year":-1500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Device that tells the time of day by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. 1500 BC: Sundial in Ancient Egypt or Babylonia (modern-day Iraq).","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian shadow clocks divided daylight into hours, giving temples and courts a shared schedule and the root of the 24-hour day.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sundial","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80793"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_sundial_80793"},{"id":"w_candle_clock_1896979","name":"Candle clock","year":550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thin candle with consistently spaced markings (usually with numbers), that when burned, indicate the passage of periods of time. Candle clock: Candle clocks have been used in China since at least the 6th century AD. The earliest reference of a candle clock is in a poem by You Jiangu, from about AD 520.","verdict":"Advance: Candle clocks, recorded in 6th-century China and used by Alfred the Great, measured hours at night.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Candle_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1896979"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_candle_clock_1896979"},{"id":"w_cotton_gin_1136790","name":"Single-roller cotton gin (India)","year":450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Machine that separates cotton fibers from seeds. Single roller cotton gin – The Ajanta Caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.","verdict":"Advance: Ajanta murals show a roller gin for separating seed from fibre, the device that made Indian cotton textiles a global trade good.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cotton_gin","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1136790"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1793)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_cotton_gin_1136790"},{"id":"w_drawbar_353648","name":"Drawbar","year":1540,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Linking pole between a trailer or a carriage and the harnessed animals or motorized engines. Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at Delhi in the Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the Delhi Sultanate.","verdict":"Advance: Drawbars coupled draft animals or engines to wagons, a basic link of agricultural and rail transport.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Drawbar_(haulage)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q353648"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_drawbar_353648"},{"id":"w_i_znik_pottery_2696793","name":"İznik pottery","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of decorated ceramic. Iznik pottery: Produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as the 15th century AD.","verdict":"Advance: Iznik's quartz-frit tiles with cobalt and bole red decorated Ottoman mosques, the high point of Islamic ceramics.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Iznik_pottery","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2696793"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_i_znik_pottery_2696793"},{"id":"w_firearm_12796","name":"Firearm","year":1288,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":7,"summary":"Personal weapon using combustion or an explosive charge to propel a projectile. Firearm kneeling position : At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) \"formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row,\" in a \"kneeling or standing pos…","verdict":"Compete: the gun; it reorganized states around gunpowder armies.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Firearm","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12796"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_firearm_12796"},{"id":"w_marching_band_1426710","name":"Marching band","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Group of musicians that perform while marching. Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.","verdict":"Compete: Marching bands grew from Ottoman mehter and European military bands, which coordinated troops by drum before turning into parade and school ensembles.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Marching_band","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1426710"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_marching_band_1426710"},{"id":"w_matchlock_2243678","name":"Matchlock","year":1526,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Firearm mechanism. Matchlock volley fire: Volley fire with matchlocks was first implemented in 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács.","verdict":"Compete: Ottoman Janissaries fired massed matchlock volleys at Mohács in 1526, a tactic soon copied across Eurasia and in Japan.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Matchlock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2243678"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_matchlock_2243678"},{"id":"w_roasting_jack_7339914","name":"Roasting jack","year":1551,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device for turning a spit. Steam jack: A steam-powered roasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya ( The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines ), in 1551 CE (959 AH).","verdict":"Advance: Taqi al-Din's 1551 steam-turned roasting spit was among the first practical uses of steam power for work.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Roasting_jack","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7339914"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_roasting_jack_7339914"},{"id":"w_multiple_barrel_firearm_60451","name":"Multiple-barrel firearm","year":1582,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Class of firearm with more than one barrel. Multi-barrel matchlock volley gun: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun.","verdict":"Compete: Fathullah Shirazi's 1582 multi-barrel volley gun for Akbar fired many rounds at once, an ancestor of the Gatling gun.","dependencies":["w_handgun_1574963","w_firearm_12796"],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multiple-barrel_firearm","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60451"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_multiple_barrel_firearm_60451"},{"id":"w_roller_mill_1035303","name":"Roller mill","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mill that uses cylindrical rollers to crush or grind various materials. Roller mill: Sugar rolling mills first appeared in the Mughal Empire, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.","verdict":"Advance: Geared roller mills crushed cane, ore and grain between cylinders; steel roller mills later made fine white flour cheap.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Roller_mill","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1035303"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_roller_mill_1035303"},{"id":"w_belt_623755","name":"Belt drive","year":50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Loop of flexible material used to mechanically link rotating shafts.","verdict":"Advance: Belt drives, used in Han Chinese silk reeling, linked distant shafts flexibly, the power distribution behind 19th-century factories.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Belt_(mechanical)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623755"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_belt_623755"},{"id":"w_breeching_1619705","name":"Breeching","year":650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Strap around the haunches of a draft, pack or riding animal. Breeching strap: The breeching strap traces its roots back to the Chinese invented breast-strap or breastcollar harness developed during the Warring States (481–221 BC) era.","verdict":"Advance: The breeching strap let draft animals brake loads downhill, needed for safe wagon transport in hilly terrain.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeching_%28tack%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1619705"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_breeching_1619705"},{"id":"w_dental_amalgam_898259","name":"Dental amalgam","year":659,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Material used in dentistry for direct restorative procedures in the tooth. Dental amalgam: Dental amalgam were used in the first part of the Tang dynasty (618–907 A.D.).","verdict":"Advance: Su Gong's silver-tin paste of 659 CE was the first dental amalgam, and its 19th-century mercury version filled billions of teeth.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amalgam_(dentistry)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898259"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dental_amalgam_898259"},{"id":"w_dougong_3235327","name":"Dougong","year":1050,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Architectural element in East Asian structures. Dougong: A dougong is a building bracket which is unique to Chinese architecture. Since at least the Western Zhou dynasty (c.","verdict":"Advance: Interlocking dougong brackets carry Chinese roofs without nails and flex in earthquakes, which is why timber halls like Foguang Temple have stood since 857.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dougong","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3235327"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_dougong_3235327"},{"id":"w_fire_arrow_3821818","name":"Fire arrow","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese gunpowder projectile. Fire arrow: One of the earliest weaponized forms of gunpowder was the fire arrow which received its name from the translated Chinese term huǒjiàn (火箭), which literally means fire arrow.","verdict":"Compete: Gunpowder-tipped arrows were among China's first military uses of the powder, leading to true rockets by the 13th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fire_arrow","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3821818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_fire_arrow_3821818"},{"id":"w_firework_127933","name":"Firework","year":950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. 10th century: Fireworks in Song dynasty China: Fireworks first appear in China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), in the early age of gunpowder. Fireworks could be purchased from market vendors;","verdict":"Advance: Song-dynasty pyrotechnicians turned gunpowder into spectacle; colour chemistry later produced flares, signals and the solid-rocket know-how behind space launch.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fireworks","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127933"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_firework_127933"},{"id":"w_flamethrower_45183","name":"Flamethrower","year":650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanical incendiary device designed to project a long controllable stream of fire.","verdict":"Compete: Byzantine siphons sprayed pressurized Greek fire from ships, the first flamethrower; its incendiary descendants are still contested in modern law of war.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flamethrower","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45183"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_flamethrower_45183"},{"id":"w_flare_628261","name":"Flare","year":1276,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Pyrotechnic device that produces intense light or heat without an explosion. Flare: The earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signalling purposes was the signal bomb used by the Song dynasty Chinese as the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty besieged Yangzhou in 1276.","verdict":"Compete: Signal and illumination flares, recorded in Song China, let commanders communicate and see at night, now standard for aircraft decoys and sea rescue.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flare","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628261"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_flare_628261"},{"id":"w_fragmentation_110877588","name":"Fragmentation","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Process by which the casing of a projectile is shattered. Fragmentation bomb: The use of fragmentation in bombs dates from the 14th century, and first appears in the Ming dynasty text Huolongjing. The fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain.","verdict":"Compete: Iron-cased bombs that shatter into shrapnel, first seen in Jin–Song wars, multiplied the lethality of explosives, a principle behind every artillery shell.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fragmentation_(weaponry)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110877588"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_fragmentation_110877588"},{"id":"w_free_reed_aerophone_399597","name":"Free reed aerophone","year":1250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Class of musical instruments. Free reed aerophone: The musical pipe organ employing metal piston bellows had a long history in the Western world, dating from the Hellenistic period.","verdict":"Advance: The vibrating free reed of the Chinese sheng reached Europe in the late 18th century and produced the harmonium, accordion and harmonica.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Free_reed_aerophone","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q399597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_free_reed_aerophone_399597"},{"id":"w_gas_lighting_856548","name":"Gas lighting","year":300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of artificial light. Gas lighting: The ancient Chinese during the Spring and Autumn period made the first practical use of natural gas for lighting purposes about 500 BC where they used bamboo pipelines to transport and carry both brine and natural gas for…","verdict":"Advance: Sichuan engineers piped natural gas through bamboo to light salt works (claimed for antiquity), the first gas lighting, centuries before London's 1807 streetlamps.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas_lighting","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q856548"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gas_lighting_856548"},{"id":"w_hand_cannon_1430251","name":"Hand cannon","year":1250,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Earliest form of firearm used in 13th century China, 14th century Europe. Hand cannon: The bronze Yuan dynasty gun from Heilongjiang, which dates from about 1288, is a little over 0.3 m (0.98 ft) long and weighs 3.6 kg (7.9 lb).","verdict":"Compete: The bronze Heilongjiang hand cannon (c. 1288) is among the oldest dated firearms, and the design reached Europe within decades.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hand_cannon","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1430251"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_hand_cannon_1430251"},{"id":"w_hand_grenade_173517","name":"Hand grenade","year":1044,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Small explosive weapon that can be thrown by hand. Hand grenade, explosive: Before explosive grenades, incendiary grenades were used by the Eastern Roman Empire, incorporating Greek fire.","verdict":"Compete: Song-dynasty ceramic grenades packed with gunpowder and shrapnel, recorded in the 1044 Wujing Zongyao, put explosive force in a soldier's hand.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grenade","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173517"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_hand_grenade_173517"},{"id":"w_handgun_1574963","name":"Handgun","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Short-barreled firearm designed to be operated with one hand. Hand gun: An early depiction of a hand gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, dating from 1128, that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, firing flames and a cannonball.","verdict":"Compete: Small handheld guns spread from China through Islam to Europe in the 1300s, eventually ending the armoured knight's dominance.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Handgun","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1574963"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_handgun_1574963"},{"id":"w_hell_money_16241696","name":"Hell money","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of joss paper printed to resemble bank notes. Hell money: Hell money is a form of joss paper printed to resemble fake legal tender bank notes.","verdict":"Advance: Burning printed \"hell bank notes\" for ancestors adapted paper money to Chinese ritual, a sign of how money had become part of everyday life.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hell_money","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16241696"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_hell_money_16241696"},{"id":"w_horse_harness_3127570","name":"Horse harness","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Horse tack to pull carriages, wagons or sleighs. Horse harness: Throughout the ancient world, the throat-and-girth harness was used for harnessing horses that pulled carts; this greatly limited a horse's ability to exert itself as it was constantly choked at the neck.","verdict":"Advance: The Chinese breast-strap harness (c. 4th century BCE), and later the collar harness, let horses pull without choking, tripling hauling power.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horse_harness","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3127570"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_horse_harness_3127570"},{"id":"w_incense_clock_1398027","name":"Incense clock","year":550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Clock and censer: the burning incense cuts the strings hold the weights, which fall at regular intervals. Incense clock: Incense clocks originated in China during the 6th century and later made their way to Japan, with one example preserved in the Shōsōin.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese incense clocks timed hours by burn rate, sometimes dropping weights as an alarm, a cheap, quiet timekeeper for homes and temples.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Incense_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1398027"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_incense_clock_1398027"},{"id":"w_inkstone_600794","name":"Inkstone","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stone mortar for the grinding and containment of ink. Inkstone: The inkstone is a stone mortar used in Chinese calligraphy for grinding and mixing ink. Other than stone, inkstones are also manufactured from clay, bronze, iron, and porcelain.","verdict":"Advance: Grinding ink sticks on stone with water gave Chinese calligraphers controllable ink density, one of the \"Four Treasures of the Study\".","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inkstone","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q600794"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_inkstone_600794"},{"id":"w_match_37507","name":"Match","year":577,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Small, coated stick which can be ignited by friction to light a fire.","verdict":"Advance: Northern Qi court ladies dipped pine sticks in sulphur in 577 to light fires on demand; friction matches came in 1826.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Match","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37507"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_match_37507"},{"id":"w_seed_drill_604716","name":"Seed drill","year":-1500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Agricultural tool. 1500 BC: Seed drill in Babylonia.","verdict":"Advance: Babylonian seeder ploughs dropped seed down a tube into the furrow, cutting waste; Jethro Tull's 1701 drill industrialized the idea.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seed_drill","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q604716"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_seed_drill_604716"},{"id":"w_zhaozhou_bridge_551446","name":"Zhaozhou Bridge","year":605,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Open-spandrel arch bridge in Hebei Province, China. Open-spandrel segmental arch bridge: The earliest known fully stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge is the Zhaozhou Bridge in southern Hebei province, China, completed in 605 by the Sui dynasty (581–618) engineer Li Chun.","verdict":"Advance: Li Chun's open-spandrel Zhaozhou Bridge (605) is the world's oldest standing stone arch bridge, its design reducing weight and flood load.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anji_Bridge","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q551446"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_zhaozhou_bridge_551446"},{"id":"w_pig_iron_901785","name":"Pig iron","year":450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Iron alloy with a high carbon content. Pig iron: The earliest pig iron dates from the Zhou dynasty. By the 5th century, archaeological evidence indicates that pig iron was melted to produce cast iron. In Europe, the process was not invented until the late medieval ages.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese blast furnaces produced liquid cast iron by the 5th century BCE, about 1,500 years before Europe, enabling cheap iron tools and pots.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pig_iron","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_pig_iron_901785"},{"id":"w_raised_relief_map_350514","name":"Raised-relief map","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Three-dimensional object representing a real terrain. Raised-relief map (terrain model): The raised-relief map may have existed in China since the 3rd century BC, if the accounts in the Records of the Grand Historian (by Sima Qian, 91 BC) about Qin Shi Huang 's (r.","verdict":"Advance: Raised-relief maps, traced to China and the 1st century, showed terrain in three dimensions for military planning.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Raised-relief_map","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q350514"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_raised_relief_map_350514"},{"id":"w_bookcase_215857","name":"Bookcase","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cabinet with shelving used to store books. Revolving bookcase: Revolving bookcases, known as zhuanluntang, have been documented in ancient China, and its invention is credited to Fu Xi in 544.","verdict":"Advance: Revolving sutra cases, zhuanluntang, stored Buddhist canons for easy access, a library-furniture innovation of Song China.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bookcase","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215857"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bookcase_215857"},{"id":"w_rocket_launcher_3216918","name":"Rocket launcher","year":1050,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Device for launching rockets. Rocket launcher: The earliest rocket launchers documented in imperial China launched fire arrows with launchers constructed of wood, basketry, and bamboo tubes.","verdict":"Compete: Ming and Song launchers fired dozens of rocket arrows at once, an ancestor of the Katyusha and of space launch pads.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rocket_launcher","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3216918"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rocket_launcher_3216918"},{"id":"w_sky_lantern_696134","name":"Sky lantern","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Flying lantern used during celebrations. Sky lantern: The Chinese military strategist, politician, writer, and inventor Zhuge Liang of the Three Kingdoms era is credited with its invention, and reportedly used it during military campaigns.","verdict":"Compete: Kongming lanterns, credited to Zhuge Liang as military signals, were the first hot-air craft, flying more than 1,500 years before the Montgolfiers (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sky_lantern","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q696134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_sky_lantern_696134"},{"id":"w_snow_gauge_1138712","name":"Snow gauge","year":1247,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Instrument to gather and measure the amount of solid precipitation (snow). Snow gauge: The first use of snow gauges were precipitation gauges that was widely used in 1247 during the Southern Song dynasty to gather meteorological data.","verdict":"Advance: Song dynasty China (1247) measured snowfall in standardized gauges for agriculture.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Snow_gauge","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1138712"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_snow_gauge_1138712"},{"id":"w_solid_propellant_rocket_280602","name":"Solid-propellant rocket","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Rocket with a motor that uses solid propellants. Solid-propellant rocket: The medieval Song dynasty Chinese invented the solid-propellant rocket at a time when bows, arrows, and catapult-based projectile launchers were state of the art military technology in medieval Europe.","verdict":"Advance: Song dynasty gunpowder rockets (fire arrows, 13th century) began solid rocketry, now used in boosters from the Shuttle SRBs to Artemis.","dependencies":["rocket_cn"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solid-propellant_rocket","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q280602"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_solid_propellant_rocket_280602"},{"id":"w_suspension_bridge_12570","name":"Suspension bridge","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of bridge. Suspension bridge using iron chains: Although there is evidence that many early cultures had suspension bridges with cabled ropes, the first written evidence of iron-chain suspension bridges comes from a local history and topography of…","verdict":"Advance: Iron-chain suspension bridges in Tibet (Thangtong Gyalpo, 15th century) prefigured Telford's Menai Bridge and modern long spans.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Suspension_bridge","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12570"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_suspension_bridge_12570"},{"id":"w_toilet_paper_5840","name":"Toilet paper","year":589,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tissue paper for cleaning after urination or defecation. 589: Toilet paper in Sui dynasty China, first mentioned by the official Yan Zhitui (531–591), with full evidence of continual use in subsequent dynasties.","verdict":"Advance: Sui-dynasty scholar Yan Zhitui mentions toilet paper in 589, a cheap hygiene product that later mass production made universal.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Toilet_paper","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5840"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_toilet_paper_5840"},{"id":"w_bianzhong_133722","name":"Bianzhong","year":-433,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient Chinese musical instrument consisting of sets of bronze bells. Tuned bells: The earliest complete set of tuned bells, sixteen in all, were found in Tomb 8 of Marquis Su of Jin at Qucun, southern Shanxi.","verdict":"Advance: The 65 bronze bells from Marquis Yi of Zeng's tomb (433 BCE) each sound two pitches; they reveal sophisticated Chinese acoustics and casting.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bianzhong","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133722"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_bianzhong_133722"},{"id":"w_tung_oil_2094522","name":"Tung oil","year":500,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vegetable oil. Tung oil: The tung oil tree originates in southern China and was cultivated there for tung oil, but the date of cultivation remains unknown. During the Song dynasty, tung oil was used for waterproofing on ships.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese tung oil soaked into wood and hardened into a waterproof film, protecting junks and furniture and later varnishes worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tung_oil","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2094522"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_tung_oil_2094522"},{"id":"w_well_drilling_14693887","name":"Well drilling","year":-50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of extracting a natural resource. Well drilling: The earliest record of well-drilling dates from AD 347, in China.","verdict":"Advance: Han and Jin Chinese percussion drills bored 100s of metres for brine by 347 CE, technology later used by the first oil drillers.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Well_drilling","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14693887"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_well_drilling_14693887"},{"id":"w_winnowing_961751","name":"Winnowing","year":1313,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of separating grain from chaff. Winnowing machine, rotary fan: Contemporary to the rotary air conditioning fan invented by Han dynasty mechanical engineer Ding Huan (fl.","verdict":"Advance: China's rotary winnowing fan (2nd century BCE, refined later) blew chaff from grain mechanically, one of the earliest mechanical aids to farm processing.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Winnowing","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q961751"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_winnowing_961751"},{"id":"w_electronic_cigarette_189511","name":"Electronic cigarette","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":2,"summary":"Device usually used to quit or be an alternative to tobacco. Electronic cigarette (vape): Hon Lik, a Chinese pharmacist, is credited with the invention of the modern electronic cigarette.","verdict":"Drift: A harm-reduction tool for smokers that also hooked a new generation on nicotine.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electronic_cigarette","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189511"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_electronic_cigarette_189511"},{"id":"w_generation_iv_reactor_55475603","name":"Generation IV reactor","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Classification of nuclear reactors. Generation IV reactor: China was the first country to operate a demonstration generation-IV nuclear reactor, the HTR-PM in 2021. The reactor subsequently became the first fourth generation reactor to enter commercial service in 2023.","verdict":"Advance: Generation IV designs, from molten salt to sodium-cooled reactors, aim at passive safety and fuller fuel use; China's HTR-PM entered service in 2023.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generation_IV_reactor","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55475603"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_generation_iv_reactor_55475603"},{"id":"w_quess_25382402","name":"QUESS","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese scientific satellite. Quantum communication satellite: Launched in 2016, QUESS, or Micius, is the world's first quantum communication satellite.","verdict":"Advance: China's Micius (2016) performed satellite quantum key distribution over 1,200 km.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_Experiments_at_Space_Scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Chinese_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25382402"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_quess_25382402"},{"id":"w_road_34442","name":"Road","year":-4000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Wide way leading from one place to another, especially one with a specially prepared surface which vehicles can use. 4000 BC: Paved roads, in and around the Mesopotamian city of Ur, Iraq.","verdict":"Advance: Prepared roads, from Mesopotamian streets to the Roman network of 80,000 km, made trade, administration and armies move on schedule.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Road","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34442"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_road_34442"},{"id":"w_chester_beatty_medical_papyrus_1142516","name":"Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus","year":-1200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical papyri from ancient Egypt. Colorectal surgery — The Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus, is one of the extant medical papyri, from ancient Egypt. It is dedicated to magical incantations against headaches and remedies for anorectal ailments, and is dated around 1200 BC.","verdict":"Advance: The Chester Beatty papyri give the oldest detailed treatment of anal disease, showing specialized clinical practice in New Kingdom Egypt.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Beatty_Medical_Papyrus","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1142516"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_chester_beatty_medical_papyrus_1142516"},{"id":"w_tampon_976338","name":"Tampon","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mass of absorbent material, primarily used as a feminine hygiene product. Tampon — The oldest printed medical document, Papyrus Ebers, refers to the use of soft papyrus tampons by Egyptian women in the fifteenth century B.C.","verdict":"Advance: Earle Haas's 1931 applicator tampon, sold as Tampax, gave women discreet, active-friendly menstrual hygiene.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tampon","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q976338"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tampon_976338"},{"id":"w_birth_control_122224","name":"Birth control","year":-1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Method of preventing human pregnancy or birth.","verdict":"Advance: The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) records acacia-gum pessaries, whose fermenting lactic acid is a genuine spermicide, an early step toward deliberate family planning.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Birth_control","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122224"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_birth_control_122224"},{"id":"w_surgical_suture_619800","name":"Surgical suture","year":-1100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Medical device used to hold issues together after a break up. Surgical suture — The earliest reports of surgical suture date to 3000 BC in ancient Egypt, and the oldest known suture is in a mummy from 1100 BC.","verdict":"Advance: Sutures of linen and gut, recorded in Egypt and by Sushruta, closed wounds to speed healing, a technique that is now absorbable and antibacterial.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Surgical_suture","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q619800"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_surgical_suture_619800"},{"id":"w_fraction_66055","name":"Fraction","year":-1000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Mathematical representation of a portion of a whole. Fraction and arithmetics with fractions — The earliest fractions were reciprocals of integers: ancient symbols representing one part of two, one part of three, one part of four, and so on. The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions c.","verdict":"Advance: Unit fractions on Egyptian papyri and sexagesimal fractions on Babylonian tablets let merchants and surveyors divide quantities precisely.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q66055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fraction_66055"},{"id":"w_pi_167","name":"Pi","year":-2560,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Constant ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Pi — Based on the measurements of the Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2560 BC), some Egyptologists have claimed that the ancient Egyptians used an approximation of π as ⁠ 22 / 7 ⁠ from as early as the Old Kingdom.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian and Babylonian estimates of π (about 3.16 and 3.125) let builders compute circles; Archimedes later bounded it rigorously.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pi","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pi_167"},{"id":"w_square_root_134237","name":"Square root","year":-1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Inverse operation of square for finding the original base number; that base number itself. Square root — The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other texts – possibly the Kahun Papyrus – that shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method.","verdict":"Advance: Square roots appear in Egyptian and Babylonian texts, needed for land surveys and architecture.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Square_root","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134237"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_square_root_134237"},{"id":"w_triangulation_188056","name":"Triangulation","year":-550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Determining the location of a point by forming triangles to it from known points. Triangulation — The use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity.","verdict":"Advance: Thales and later surveyors used triangulation to measure inaccessible distances, the basis of mapping and GPS.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Triangulation","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188056"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_triangulation_188056"},{"id":"w_core_drill_6065042","name":"Core drill","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Drill specifically designed to remove a cylinder of material. Core drill — The earliest core drills were those used by the ancient Egyptians, invented in 3000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian tube drills with sand abrasive cut cylindrical cores from granite, and core drilling now samples rock, ice and concrete everywhere.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Core_drill","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6065042"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_core_drill_6065042"},{"id":"w_lathe_187833","name":"Lathe","year":-1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis, and has provisions for using a tailstock. Lathe — The lathe is an ancient tool. The earliest evidence of a lathe dates back to Ancient Egypt around 1300 BC.","verdict":"Advance: The Egyptian bow lathe spun work against a hand tool to make round parts, the ancestor of the machine tools that made industrial interchangeability possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lathe","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187833"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_lathe_187833"},{"id":"w_saw_125356","name":"Saw","year":-3050,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Tool used to cut through wood or other materials. Saw — In ancient Egypt, open (unframed) saws made of copper are documented as early as the Early Dynastic Period, circa 3,100–2,686 BC. [ page needed ] Many copper saws were found in tomb No.","verdict":"Advance: Copper saws with sand abrasive let Egyptians cut timber and stone to precise dimensions for the pyramids and ships.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saw","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q125356"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_saw_125356"},{"id":"w_screw_pump_1047037","name":"Screw pump","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of pump construction. Screw pump — The screw pump is the oldest positive displacement pump. The first records of a water screw, or screw pump, dates back to Ancient Egypt before the 3rd century BC.","verdict":"Advance: The Archimedean screw lifted water for irrigation and draining ship bilges, a positive-displacement pump still used in sewage plants.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Screw_pump","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1047037"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_screw_pump_1047037"},{"id":"w_weighing_scale_134566","name":"Weighing scale","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Instrument used in measuring the weight or mass of an object. Weighing scale — The oldest attested evidence for the existence of weighing scales dates to the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, with Deben (unit) balance weights, from the reign of Sneferu (c.","verdict":"Advance: Balance scales from Egypt and the Indus (c. 2600 BCE) made fair trade in metals and grain possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weighing_scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134566"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1770)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_weighing_scale_134566"},{"id":"w_chair_15026","name":"Chair","year":-3100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Piece of furniture for sitting on. Chairs – Chairs were in existence since at least the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (c. 3100 BC).","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian joiners made the chair a seat of status by about 3000 BCE, and raised seating went on to shape furniture, posture and workplaces for five thousand years.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chair","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15026"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_chair_15026"},{"id":"w_table_14748","name":"Table","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Piece of furniture with a flat top. Tables – Some very early tables were made and used by the ancient Egyptians around 2500 BC, using wood and alabaster.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian tables gave work, meals and writing a raised surface, an unglamorous platform for every desk-bound craft that followed.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Table_(furniture)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14748"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_table_14748"},{"id":"w_corbel_arch_12550","name":"Corbel arch","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Arch-like construction method. Corbel arch — Corbelling is a technique first applied by the ancient Egyptians and Chaldeans. During the Fourth Dynasty reign of Pharaoh Sneferu (c. 2600 BC), the Ancient Egyptian pyramids used corbel vaults in some of their chambers.","verdict":"Advance: By stepping stones inward until they meet, Egyptian and Mycenaean builders roofed tombs such as the Treasury of Atreus without the true arch.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Corbel_arch","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12550"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_corbel_arch_12550"},{"id":"w_melisma_248255","name":"Melisma","year":250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Singing technique. Melisma — According to Demetrius of Falorene (3rd century A.D), the Egyptian priests used to praise the gods by singing 7 vowels successively producing sweet sounds.","verdict":"Advance: Stretching one syllable over many notes, melisma passed from Egyptian and Near Eastern liturgy into Gregorian chant and on to gospel and soul.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Melisma","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q248255"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_melisma_248255"},{"id":"w_tahtib_254093","name":"Tahtib","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Egyptian martial art and folk dance. Tahtib — The oldest traces of tahtib were found on engravings from the archaeological site of Abusir, an extensive necropolis of the Old Kingdom period, located in the south-western suburbs of Cairo.","verdict":"Compete: This stick-fighting art, carved on Old Kingdom tomb walls at Abusir, trained soldiers for combat and survives today as a UNESCO-listed folk dance.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tahtib","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254093"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_tahtib_254093"},{"id":"w_frying_300472","name":"Frying","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cooking of food in oil or another fat. Frying — Frying is believed to have first appeared in the ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, around 2500 BCE.","verdict":"Advance: Cooking in fat, practised in Egypt by about 2500 BCE, made dense, preservable, calorie-rich food, a step in culinary chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Frying","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300472"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_frying_300472"},{"id":"w_kohl_1342346","name":"Kohl","year":-3100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient eye cosmetic used around the eyes, primarily inside the row of eyelashes. Kohl — Worn during Naqada III era (c. 3100 BCE) by Egyptians of all social classes, originally as protection against eye ailments.","verdict":"Advance: Kohl, ground from galena or soot, was worn by Egyptians from the Naqada period on; besides its cosmetic use, it may have cut glare and eye infections, an early overlap of beauty and hygiene (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kohl_(cosmetics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1342346"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_kohl_1342346"},{"id":"w_quilting_1920065","name":"Quilting","year":-3400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of sewing layers of fabric together to make a padded material. Quilting — The earliest known quilted garment is depicted on the carved ivory figure of a Pharaoh dating from the ancient Egyptian First Dynasty (c. 3400 BC).","verdict":"Advance: Stitching padded layers together, seen in an Egyptian ivory figure (c. 3400 BCE), made light insulating armour and bedding.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quilting","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1920065"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_quilting_1920065"},{"id":"w_umbrella_41607","name":"Umbrella","year":-2450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Canopy designed to protect against inclement weather, particularly rain and sun. Umbrella — the earliest known parasols in Ancient Egyptian art date back to the Fifth Dynasty, around 2450 BC. The parasol is found in various shapes.","verdict":"Advance: Parasols carried by Assyrian, Egyptian and Chinese elites became the folding umbrella; China had a collapsible version by the 1st century CE.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Umbrella","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41607"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_umbrella_41607"},{"id":"w_egyptian_hieroglyphs_132659","name":"Egyptian hieroglyphs","year":-3250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians. Egyptian hieroglyphs — Hieroglyphic symbol systems developed in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called \" Scorpion I \" ( Naqada IIIA period, c.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian hieroglyphs, from Abydos tomb U-j tags around 3250 BCE, encoded sound and meaning together, and their decipherment in 1822 unlocked 3,000 years of history.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Egyptian_hieroglyphs","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132659"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_egyptian_hieroglyphs_132659"},{"id":"w_egyptian_hieratic_208111","name":"Egyptian hieratic","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cursive writing system used in the provenance of the pharaohs in Egypt and Nubia. Hieratic — Hieratic developed as a cursive form of hieroglyphic script in the Naqada III period, roughly 3200–3000 BCE.","verdict":"Advance: Hieratic's quick ink script let Egyptian scribes keep accounts and letters on papyrus, writing scaled up for administration.","dependencies":["w_egyptian_hieroglyphs_132659"],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hieratic","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208111"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_egyptian_hieratic_208111"},{"id":"w_sick_leave_464163","name":"Sick leave","year":-1500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Policy allowing paid time off from work for health needs. Sick leave — Already in 1500 BCE, at least some of the workers who built the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs received paid sick leave as well as state-supported health care.","verdict":"Advance: Workmen's records from Deir el-Medina (c. 1500 BCE) log paid absences for illness, an early sign that labour protections predate industrial unions.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sick_leave","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q464163"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_sick_leave_464163"},{"id":"w_automatic_door_11612630","name":"Automatic door","year":50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Door that opens automatically, usually upon sensing the approach of a person. Automatic door — In the 1st century AD, mathematician Heron of Alexandria in Roman Egypt invented the first known automatic door. He described two different automatic door applications.","verdict":"Advance: Hero's automatic temple doors.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automatic_door","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11612630"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_automatic_door_11612630"},{"id":"w_heron_s_fountain_1613860","name":"Heron's fountain","year":70,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hydraulic machine invented by Heron of Alexandria. Heron's fountain — A standalone fountain that operates under self-contained hydro-static energy; now called Heron's fountain.","verdict":"Advance: Heron's fountain runs on air pressure and gravity alone, a demonstration of pneumatics that taught physics for centuries.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heron's_fountain","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1613860"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_heron_s_fountain_1613860"},{"id":"w_fermat_s_principle_331041","name":"Fermat's principle","year":1662,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Principle of least time. In optics, Hero formulated the principle of the shortest path of light: If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, the path-length followed is the shortest possible.","verdict":"Advance: Fermat's 1662 principle that light takes the quickest path explained refraction and inspired the calculus of variations.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fermat's_principle","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q331041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fermat_s_principle_331041"},{"id":"w_ptolemy_s_world_map_1241342","name":"Ptolemy's world map","year":150,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"2nd century Greco-Roman map of the world. Ptolemy's world map — It included 8,000 locations from Shetland islands to the Ethiopian plateau and from the Canary Islands to China.","verdict":"Advance: Ptolemy's Geography (c. 150) mapped 8,000 places using latitude and longitude, guiding Renaissance cartographers.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ptolemy's_world_map","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1241342"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ptolemy_s_world_map_1241342"},{"id":"w_saqiyah_1624359","name":"Saqiyah","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mechanical water lifting device. Saqiyah — Paddle-driven water-lifting wheels had appeared in ancient Egypt by the 4th century BCE.","verdict":"Advance: The saqiyah's animal-turned gears lifted irrigation water continuously; spread from Egypt across Islam, it greened fields for 2,000 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saqiyah","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1624359"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_saqiyah_1624359"},{"id":"w_quadrant_841280","name":"Quadrant","year":1050,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Navigation instrument. Astrolabic quadrant was invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the \" Quadrans Vetus \" (Old Quadrant).","verdict":"Advance: The astrolabic quadrant halved the astrolabe into a simpler sighting tool, used for time-telling, surveying and later navigation.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quadrant_(instrument)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841280"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_quadrant_841280"},{"id":"w_sugar_refinery_227857","name":"Sugar refinery","year":1150,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Agrifood craftwork or factory, which processes sugar beet, cane or natural sweetened sirups, in order to produce raw sugar, or to refine it into white sugar or ethanol. Sugar refinery — Date back to the 12th century in Medieval Egypt.","verdict":"Advance: Refineries from medieval Egypt to modern Europe turned cane and beet into pure sucrose, cheap energy for millions though now a driver of dietary disease.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sugar_refinery","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q227857"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_sugar_refinery_227857"},{"id":"w_stepwell_1473950","name":"Stepwell","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Waterbody reached by steps. Stepwell – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.","verdict":"Advance: Indian stepwells such as Rani ki Vav stored monsoon water underground, providing year-round supply and cooling in arid Gujarat.","dependencies":["w_water_well_43483"],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stepwell","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1473950"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_stepwell_1473950"},{"id":"w_carrom_900489","name":"Carrom","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Indian tabletop game. Carrom – The game of carrom originated in India. One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India. It became very popular among the masses after World War I.","verdict":"Advance: The finger-flicked disc game of carrom spread from South Asian homes and clubs around the world, a cheap game of skill.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carrom","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q900489"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_carrom_900489"},{"id":"w_carding_1411858","name":"Carding","year":150,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Process that disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibres. Carding devices – Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India. The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).","verdict":"Advance: Combing fibres straight before spinning, mechanized by Arkwright's carding engine (1775), was a key step in the cotton mills.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carding","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1411858"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_carding_1411858"},{"id":"w_crank_857558","name":"Crank","year":-550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanism where an arm attached to a rotating shaft by which circular motion is imparted to the shaft. Late 6th century BC: Crank motion ( rotary quern ) in Carthage or 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain Later during the Roman empire, a mechanism appeared that incorporated a connecting rod.","verdict":"Advance: The crank, which turns rotation into reciprocating motion and back, appeared in Chinese and Roman machines and later drove piston engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crank_(mechanism)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_crank_857558"},{"id":"w_sugarcane_mill_1820305","name":"Sugarcane mill","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Factory that processes sugar cane to produce raw or white sugar. Roller sugar mill – Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.","verdict":"Advance: Geared three-roller mills, spread from India and China to the Americas by about 1650, multiplied sugar output; the crop's economics fueled the Atlantic slave trade.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sugarcane_mill","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_sugarcane_mill_1820305"},{"id":"w_indian_club_2804113","name":"Indian club","year":1750,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of exercise equipment. Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.","verdict":"Advance: Persian and Indian clubs (meels), adopted by the British Army about 1800, made swinging weights a standard fitness exercise for strength and shoulder rehab.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Indian_club","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2804113"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_indian_club_2804113"},{"id":"w_otoplasty_2659509","name":"Otoplasty","year":1750,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Surgery to correct the deformities and defects of the pinna. Otoplasty – Ear surgery was developed in ancient India and is described in the medical compendium, the Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium, c. 500 AD ).","verdict":"Advance: Sushruta described repairing torn earlobes; Johann Dieffenbach's 1845 otoplasty made ear correction routine.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Otoplasty","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2659509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_otoplasty_2659509"},{"id":"w_diamond_cut_12103146","name":"Diamond cut","year":1375,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Gemstone cut in a particular shape with numerous facets so as to have an exceptional brilliance. Diamond drills – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.","verdict":"Advance: Faceting diamonds, which began in earnest with 14th–15th-century European point and table cuts, revealed their brilliance; the cutting know-how later fed industrial abrasives.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diamond_cut","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12103146"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_diamond_cut_12103146"},{"id":"w_celestial_globe_1425895","name":"Celestial globe","year":1589,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of star chart where the map is arranged on a globe. Seamless celestial globe – Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.","verdict":"Advance: Seamless celestial globes from Mughal India and earlier Islamic workshops (claimed) mapped the stars precisely.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Celestial_globe","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1425895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_celestial_globe_1425895"},{"id":"w_tumble_finishing_925936","name":"Tumble finishing","year":-950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique for smoothing and polishing a rough surface on relatively small parts. Tumble polishing – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads.","verdict":"Advance: Rotating parts in abrasive grit polished many pieces at once (claimed Indian origin), a batch-finishing method still used for gears and jewellery.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tumble_finishing","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q925936"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_tumble_finishing_925936"},{"id":"w_chakravala_method_3099784","name":"Chakravala method","year":1114,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations. Chakravala method – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE) although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).","verdict":"Advance: Jayadeva and Bhāskara II's chakravala method (c. 1150) solved Pell's equation, praised by Hermann Hankel.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chakravala_method","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3099784"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chakravala_method_3099784"},{"id":"w_trigonometric_function_93344","name":"Trigonometric function","year":450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Function of an angle. Trigonometric functions – The trigonometric functions sine and versine originated in Indian astronomy along with the cosine and inversine, adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions).","verdict":"Advance: Āryabhaṭa's sine tables (499) began trigonometry in its modern form, transmitted through Arabic to Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trigonometric_functions","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q93344"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_trigonometric_function_93344"},{"id":"w_mathematical_interpolation_187631","name":"Mathematical interpolation","year":665,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method for constructing new data points between known data points. Finite difference interpolation – The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta presented what is possibly the first instance of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.","verdict":"Advance: Interpolation, from Brahmagupta to Newton, estimates values between data points in tables and computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interpolation","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187631"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mathematical_interpolation_187631"},{"id":"w_fibonacci_sequence_23835349","name":"Fibonacci sequence","year":700,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Entire infinite integer series where the next number is the sum of the two preceding it (0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,...). Fibonacci numbers – This sequence was first described by Virahanka (c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150), as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala (c. 200 BCE).","verdict":"Advance: Virahanka (c. 700) and Fibonacci (1202) described the sequence now found in algorithms and nature.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fibonacci_sequence","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23835349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fibonacci_sequence_23835349"},{"id":"w_pascal_s_triangle_177051","name":"Pascal's triangle","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Triangular array of the binomial coefficients in mathematics.","verdict":"Advance: Pingala's Meru-prastāra, and later Jia Xian, al-Karaji and Pascal, arranged binomial coefficients in a triangle.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pascal's_triangle","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177051"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pascal_s_triangle_177051"},{"id":"w_pell_s_equation_853067","name":"Pell's equation","year":-700,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mathematical equation, specifically a kind of Diophantine equation. 700 BC: Pell's equations are first studied by Baudhayana in India, the first diophantine equations known to be studied.","verdict":"Advance: Pell's equation, studied in India and later solved by Brahmagupta and Bhāskara II, is a classic of number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pell's_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853067"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1657)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pell_s_equation_853067"},{"id":"w_tychonic_system_1861183","name":"Tychonic system","year":1588,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Model of the Solar System proposed in 1588 by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Geoheliocentricsm – A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatise Tantrasamgraha ( c. 1500 CE ) by Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.","verdict":"Advance: Tycho Brahe's geoheliocentric system (1588) reconciled observations with a stationary Earth until Kepler.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tychonic_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1861183"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_tychonic_system_1861183"},{"id":"w_cervical_cerclage_5065334","name":"Cervical cerclage","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Obstetrics medical procedure. Cervical cerclage – was first described by V. N. Shirodkar in Bombay in 1955.","verdict":"Advance: V. N. Shirodkar's 1955 cervical stitch, developed in Bombay, prevents premature birth in women with weak cervixes.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cervical_cerclage","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5065334"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cervical_cerclage_5065334"},{"id":"w_cholera_toxin_83586","name":"Cholera toxin","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Protein complex secreted by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Cholera toxin – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologist Sambhu Nath De.","verdict":"Advance: Sambhu Nath De's 1959 discovery of cholera toxin explained the disease's lethal diarrhoea and confirmed oral rehydration as the counter.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cholera_toxin","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83586"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cholera_toxin_83586"},{"id":"w_urea_48318","name":"Urea","year":1828,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"The diamide of carbonic acid. 1828: Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea, refuting vitalism.","verdict":"Advance: Wöhler's 1828 synthesis of urea from inorganic salts dissolved vitalism, launching organic chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Urea","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48318"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_urea_48318"},{"id":"w_transformer_11658","name":"Electrical transformer","year":1831,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Electrical device that transfers energy through electromagnetic induction from one circuit to another circuit.","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's induction ring; stepping voltage up and down made long-distance grids possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transformer","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_transformer_11658"},{"id":"w_horn_antenna_759117","name":"Horn antenna","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of antenna shaped like a horn and also called \"horn\". Horn antenna or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1897.","verdict":"Advance: Bose's 1897 waveguide horns directed microwaves; horn antennas later found the cosmic microwave background in 1965.","dependencies":["w_waveguide_11233438"],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horn_antenna","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_horn_antenna_759117"},{"id":"w_waveguide_11233438","name":"Waveguide","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Structure that guides waves, typically electromagnetic waves. English physicist J. J. Thomson invented waveguides.","verdict":"Advance: J. J. Thomson's 1893 waveguide theory, tested by Lodge and Bose, guided microwaves through pipes, essential for radar.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Waveguide","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11233438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_waveguide_11233438"},{"id":"w_file_transfer_protocol_42283","name":"File Transfer Protocol","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Standardized protocol for transferring files over TCP/IP networks. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network.","verdict":"Advance: Abhay Bhushan's 1971 FTP moved files across ARPANET, an early internet protocol.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/File_Transfer_Protocol","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42283"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_file_transfer_protocol_42283"},{"id":"w_julia_2613697","name":"Julia","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"High-performance dynamic programming language. Julia is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science. Viral B.","verdict":"Advance: Julia (2012) combines Python-like syntax with C-like speed for scientific computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Julia_(programming_language)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2613697"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_julia_2613697"},{"id":"w_risc_v_17637401","name":"RISC-V","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Open-source CPU hardware instruction set architecture. RISC-V ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below):","verdict":"Advance: Berkeley's RISC-V (2010) is a free instruction set, letting anyone design processors without licences.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RISC-V","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17637401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_risc_v_17637401"},{"id":"w_amrapali_4748619","name":"Amrapali","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mango cultivar. Amrapali mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi.","verdict":"Advance: A high-yield dwarf mango hybrid.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amrapali_(mango)","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4748619"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_amrapali_4748619"},{"id":"w_crescograph_5184457","name":"Crescograph","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Measuring device. Crescograph – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose.","verdict":"Advance: The crescograph that J. C. Bose built in the 1900s magnified plant growth 10,000 times and showed that plants respond to stimuli.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crescograph","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5184457"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_crescograph_5184457"},{"id":"w_compressed_natural_gas_720050","name":"Compressed natural gas","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"CNG, fuel which can be used in place of gasoline, diesel fuel and propane/LPG. CNG car/vehicle – Bajaj Auto launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000.","verdict":"Advance: Compressed natural gas buses and rickshaws cleaned Delhi's air after a 2002 court order.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compressed_natural_gas","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720050"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_compressed_natural_gas_720050"},{"id":"w_kosaraju_s_algorithm_2655281","name":"Kosaraju's algorithm","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm to find the strongly connected component of a directed graph. Kosaraju's algorithm is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978.","verdict":"Advance: Kosaraju's 1978 algorithm finds strongly connected components in two passes.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kosaraju's_algorithm","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2655281"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kosaraju_s_algorithm_2655281"},{"id":"w_multivariate_statistics_1952580","name":"Multivariate statistics","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Simultaneous observation and analysis of more than one outcome variable. Multivariate Statistical Theory, is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed by C. R. Rao in 1952 when he was in Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.","verdict":"Advance: T. W. Anderson's 1958 multivariate statistics handles several variables, used in genomics.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multivariate_statistics","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1952580"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_multivariate_statistics_1952580"},{"id":"w_block_design_751484","name":"Block design","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set together with a family of subsets in math. Partial Balanced Incomplete Block Designs (BIBD) was developed by Raj Chandra Bose and Kesavan Raghavan Nair in 1939.","verdict":"Advance: R. C. Bose's 1939 block designs advanced experimental design and coding theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Block_design","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751484"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_block_design_751484"},{"id":"w_ramanujan_theta_function_2630765","name":"Ramanujan theta function","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematic term. Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan's sum – Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.","verdict":"Advance: Ramanujan's theta function, from his notebooks, appears in string theory and modular forms.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ramanujan_theta_function","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2630765"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ramanujan_theta_function_2630765"},{"id":"w_shrikhande_graph_3115537","name":"Shrikhande graph","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Strongly regular graph with 16 vertices and 48 edges. Shrikhande graph – Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.","verdict":"Advance: S. S. Shrikhande's 1959 graph disproved a uniqueness conjecture about strongly regular graphs.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrikhande_graph","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3115537"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_shrikhande_graph_3115537"},{"id":"w_indian_ocean_dipole_1574518","name":"Indian Ocean Dipole","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean. Indian Ocean Dipole is an unusual pattern in the ocean-atmosphere system of the equatorial Indian Ocean that influences the monsoon and can offset the adverse impact of El Nino.","verdict":"Advance: N. H. Saji and colleagues identified the Indian Ocean Dipole in 1999, which helps forecast monsoons.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Indian_Ocean_Dipole","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1574518"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_indian_ocean_dipole_1574518"},{"id":"w_mahalanobis_distance_1334846","name":"Mahalanobis distance","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Distance measure. Mahalanobis distance – Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analy…","verdict":"Advance: P. C. Mahalanobis's 1936 distance accounts for correlated variables, used in anomaly detection.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mahalanobis_distance","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1334846"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mahalanobis_distance_1334846"},{"id":"w_ramachandran_plot_579211","name":"Ramachandran plot","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Way to visualize backbone dihedral angles ψ against φ of amino acid residues in protein structure.","verdict":"Advance: G. N. Ramachandran's 1963 plot of allowed backbone angles became the standard check on every protein structure, from crystallography to AlphaFold.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ramachandran_plot","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q579211"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_ramachandran_plot_579211"},{"id":"w_raychaudhuri_equation_2134013","name":"Raychaudhuri equation","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Result in general relativity. Raychaudhuri equation – Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general relativity.","verdict":"Advance: Amal Raychaudhuri's 1955 equation led to the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Raychaudhuri_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2134013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_raychaudhuri_equation_2134013"},{"id":"w_saha_ionization_equation_631222","name":"Saha ionization equation","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relation between ionization state of a gas to the temperature and pressure. Saha ionisation equation – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises ionisations in context of stellar atmospheres.","verdict":"Advance: Meghnad Saha's 1920 ionization equation explained stellar spectra by temperature.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saha_ionization_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q631222"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_saha_ionization_equation_631222"},{"id":"w_bernoulli_number_694114","name":"Bernoulli number","year":1708,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rational number sequence 𝐵ₖ such that (𝑚+1)∑𝑛ᵐ=(ᵐ⁺¹₀)𝐵₀𝑛ᵐ⁺¹−(ᵐ⁺¹₁)𝐵₁𝑛ᵐ+(ᵐ⁺¹₂)𝐵₂𝑛ᵐ¯¹−(ᵐ⁺¹₃)𝐵₃𝑛ᵐ¯²+⋯. 1708— Seki Takakazu discovers Bernoulli numbers. Jacob Bernoulli, whom the numbers are named after, is believed to have independently discovered the numbers shortly after Takakazu.","verdict":"Advance: Bernoulli numbers were found independently by Seki Takakazu and Jacob Bernoulli; they appear in sums of powers and the Riemann zeta function.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bernoulli_number","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q694114"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bernoulli_number_694114"},{"id":"w_klein_nishina_formula_1746206","name":"Klein–Nishina formula","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electron-photon scattering cross section. Klein–Nishina formula","verdict":"Advance: Klein and Nishina's 1929 formula gave photon–electron scattering, an early test of quantum electrodynamics.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Klein%E2%80%93Nishina_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1746206"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_klein_nishina_formula_1746206"},{"id":"w_japanese_typewriter_863424","name":"Japanese typewriter","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Typewriter used to produce Japanese script. Japanese typewriter","verdict":"Advance: Kyota Sugimoto's 1915 typewriter for about 2,400 kanji brought office mechanization to Japanese text.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Japanese_typewriter","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863424"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_japanese_typewriter_863424"},{"id":"w_neodymium_magnet_908880","name":"Neodymium magnet","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of magnet. Neodymium magnet","verdict":"Advance: Sagawa and General Motors' 1982 NdFeB magnets, the strongest permanent magnets, made compact motors for EVs and wind turbines possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neodymium_magnet","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q908880"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_neodymium_magnet_908880"},{"id":"w_rice_cooker_1137500","name":"Rice cooker","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Kitchen appliance. Electric rice cooker","verdict":"Advance: Mitsubishi's 1945 and Toshiba's 1955 automatic rice cookers freed Asian households from tending pots.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rice_cooker","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137500"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_rice_cooker_1137500"},{"id":"w_hal_79194","name":"HAL","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Powered exoskeleton suit. Robotic exoskeleton for motion support (medicine)","verdict":"Advance: Cyberdyne's HAL suit (2004) reads muscle signals at the skin to power limbs, now certified for medical rehabilitation in Japan and Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_Assistive_Limb","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79194"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_hal_79194"},{"id":"w_blu_ray_disc_47770","name":"Blu-ray Disc","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Digital optical disc data storage format. Blu-ray Disc (along with other nations)","verdict":"Advance: Sony-led Blu-ray (2006) used a blue laser to hold 25 GB per layer, the last major physical video format.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blu-ray","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47770"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_blu_ray_disc_47770"},{"id":"w_vhs_183976","name":"VHS","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Consumer-level analog video tape recording and cassette form factor standard. VHS (Video Home System)","verdict":"Advance: JVC's 1976 VHS won the format war through longer recording time, creating the home video rental market.","dependencies":["magnetic_tape"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183976"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_vhs_183976"},{"id":"w_power_loom_1353185","name":"Power loom","year":1789,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanised loom powered by a line shaft. Automatic power loom with a non-stop shuttle-change motion","verdict":"Advance: Edmund Cartwright's 1785 power loom, perfected by 1820s mills, multiplied weaving output and drove the cotton factory system.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Power_loom","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1353185"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_power_loom_1353185"},{"id":"w_myriad_year_clock_3049246","name":"Myriad year clock","year":1851,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese cultural artifact. Myriad year clock","verdict":"Advance: Tanaka Hisashige's 1851 myriad-year clock showed six time systems at once, a peak of Japanese mechanical craft that preceded the founding of Toshiba.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriad_year_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3049246"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_myriad_year_clock_3049246"},{"id":"w_quartz_clock_257916","name":"Quartz clock","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Clock type. Quartz wristwatch","verdict":"Advance: Warren Marrison's 1927 quartz oscillator clock kept time to a fraction of a second a day, the basis of radio, computing and watch accuracy.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quartz_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q257916"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_quartz_clock_257916"},{"id":"w_escalator_15003","name":"Escalator","year":1892,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Moving staircase. Spiral escalator","verdict":"Advance: Jesse Reno's 1892 inclined elevator moved crowds continuously, essential to department stores and metro stations.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Escalator","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15003"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_escalator_15003"},{"id":"w_correction_tape_1863081","name":"Correction tape","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tape used to correct mistakes during typing or handwriting. Correction tape","verdict":"Advance: Correction tape, from Seed Co. in 1989, replaced liquid paper with a clean, dry fix for writing errors.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Correction_tape","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1863081"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_correction_tape_1863081"},{"id":"w_naval_artillery_511450","name":"Naval artillery","year":1378,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Artillery intended primarily for mounting aboard watercraft. Naval artillery","verdict":"Compete: Ship-mounted cannon, used by Venice by 1378, turned warships into floating gun platforms, the basis of European oceanic power.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Naval_artillery","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_Korean_inventions_and_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q511450"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_naval_artillery_511450"},{"id":"w_mit_license_334661","name":"MIT License","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Permissive free software license. Jun 11, 2018 OpenAI 0.117B Unknown 1 MIT First GPT model, decoder-only transformer. Trained for 30 days on 8 P600 GPUs.","verdict":"Advance: MIT's permissive licence (1988) lets software be reused freely, and is the most common open-source licence.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MIT_License","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334661"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mit_license_334661"},{"id":"w_apache_license_616526","name":"Apache License","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Free software license scheme developed by the Apache Software Foundation. Oct 2018 Google 0.340B 3.3B words 9 Apache 2.0 An early and influential language model. Encoder-only and thus not built to be prompted or generative. Training took 4 days on 64 TPUv2 chips.","verdict":"Advance: A permissive open-source license used by much of the world's software.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apache_License","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q616526"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_apache_license_616526"},{"id":"w_proprietary_software_218616","name":"Proprietary software","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer software released under a license restricting use, study or redistribution. May 2020 OpenAI 175B 300B tokens 3640 Proprietary A fine-tuned variant of GPT-3, termed GPT-3.5, was made available to the public through ChatGPT in 2022.","verdict":"Advance: Proprietary software became a business after IBM unbundled software in 1969, building Microsoft and Oracle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Proprietary_software","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218616"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_proprietary_software_218616"},{"id":"w_meta_ai_112114913","name":"Meta AI","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Artificial intelligence laboratory owned by Meta. Feb 2023 Meta AI 65B 1.4T 6300 Non-commercial research Facebook's license and distribution scheme restricted access to approved researchers, but the model weights were leaked and became widely available.","verdict":"Advance: Meta's LLaMA (2023) released open-weight language models, accelerating open research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Meta_AI","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q112114913"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_meta_ai_112114913"},{"id":"w_qwen_130234299","name":"Qwen","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial intelligence chatbot developed by Alibaba Cloud. Jun 2024 Alibaba Cloud 72B 3T tokens Various","verdict":"Advance: Alibaba's Qwen models (2023–24) are widely used open-weight models from China.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Qwen","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130234299"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_qwen_130234299"},{"id":"w_mixture_of_experts_30688561","name":"Mixture of experts","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Machine learning technique. Apr 23 Tencent 295B Tencent Hy Community Mixture-of-experts model with 21B active parameters and a 256K-token context window. Preview predecessor to Hy3.","verdict":"Advance: Mixture-of-experts models (Jacobs, 1991; Shazeer, 2017) activate only a subset of parameters, enabling large efficient models.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mixture_of_experts","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30688561"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mixture_of_experts_30688561"},{"id":"w_kimi_131993396","name":"Kimi","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chatbot. Jul 8 Cognition AI Coding model for the Devin agent; trained from a Kimi K2.7 base with Cognition's reinforcement-learning pipeline. Available via Devin (not as open weights).","verdict":"Advance: Moonshot AI's Kimi (2023) offered long-context chat in China, with later open-weight models.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimi_%28AI%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131993396"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kimi_131993396"},{"id":"w_glm_140356408","name":"GLM","year":2025,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Large language model by Z.ai. Aug 14 Z.ai 744B 30T Various 40B active","verdict":"Advance: Zhipu's GLM models (from 2021), released as Z.ai, are among China's leading open-weight models.","dependencies":["gpt3"],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLM_%28AI%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/List_of_large_language_models","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q140356408"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_glm_140356408"},{"id":"w_legion_of_honour_163700","name":"Legion of Honour","year":1802,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Highest French order of merit. Mahmoud Hessabi was awarded the title of Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur by the French government.","verdict":"Advance: Napoleon's order of merit: state honours earned by service rather than birth.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Legion_of_Honour","https://grokipedia.com/page/Science_and_technology_in_Iran","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163700"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_legion_of_honour_163700"},{"id":"w_pont_du_gard_189764","name":"Pont du Gard","year":50,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient Roman aqueduct bridge that crosses the Gardon River in Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France. Pont du Gard, Segovia etc.","verdict":"Advance: The three-tier Pont du Gard carried water 50 km to Nîmes with a drop of only 17 m, showing the precision of Roman hydraulic engineering.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pont_du_Gard","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189764"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pont_du_gard_189764"},{"id":"w_roman_bridge_of_chaves_1504273","name":"Roman Bridge of Chaves","year":100,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bridge in the river tamega in Chaves city, Portugal. See e.g. Roman Bridge of Chaves or the Severan Bridge.","verdict":"Advance: Trajan's bridge at Chaves has carried traffic over the Tâmega for nearly 2,000 years, a testament to Roman masonry.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Bridge_of_Chaves","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1504273"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_roman_bridge_of_chaves_1504273"},{"id":"w_cup_of_the_ptolemies_5194421","name":"Cup of the Ptolemies","year":-100,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Late hellenistic or roman onyx cameo cup. Probably a Hellenistic innovation, e.g. Cup of the Ptolemies, but taken up by the Emperors, e.g. Gemma Augustea, Gemma Claudia etc.","verdict":"Advance: Carved from one sardonyx, this cameo cup shows the Hellenistic gem-cutting precision that later Roman and medieval workshops tried to equal.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cup_of_the_Ptolemies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5194421"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_cup_of_the_ptolemies_5194421"},{"id":"w_sawmill_505213","name":"Sawmill","year":550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Plant for processing tree trunks into boards and beams. Found in several water-powered saw mills dating from the late 3rd ( Hierapolis sawmill ) to 6th century AD (at Ephesus and Gerasa respectively).","verdict":"Advance: Water-powered saws at Byzantine Gerasa and Ephesus (6th century) cut stone mechanically with a crank and connecting rod.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sawmill","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505213"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_sawmill_505213"},{"id":"w_kasserine_dam_1735247","name":"Kasserine Dam","year":150,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Dam in Tunisia. Examples include curved dams at Orükaya, Çavdarhisar, both Turkey (and 2nd century), Kasserine Dam in Tunisia, and Puy Foradado Dam in Spain (2nd–3rd century)","verdict":"Advance: Roman arch dams in Tunisia and Anatolia curved against the water's force, an engineering idea that returned in modern concrete arch dams.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasserine_Dam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1735247"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_kasserine_dam_1735247"},{"id":"w_weir_1066997","name":"Weir","year":250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Barrier across a river designed to alter its flow characteristics. The Band-i-Kaisar, constructed by Roman prisoners of war in Shustar, Persia, in the 3rd century AD, featured a weir combined with an arch bridge, a multifunctional hydraulic structure which subsequently spread throughout Iran.","verdict":"Advance: Weirs like Band-e Kaisar, built by Roman prisoners in Persia, raised river levels for irrigation and mills.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weir","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1066997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_weir_1066997"},{"id":"w_fulling_1585730","name":"Fulling","year":50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pre-industrial process in making wool fabric. M. J. T. Lewis presents good evidence that water-powered vertical pounding machines came in by the middle of the 1st century AD for fulling, grain hulling (Pliny Nat. Hist.","verdict":"Advance: Beating wool with stocks to shrink and thicken it was mechanized by water-driven fulling mills, Europe's first industrial use of water power.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fulling","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1585730"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_fulling_1585730"},{"id":"w_lateen_sail_1164174","name":"Lateen sail","year":-150,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Boomless triangular sail used as both main and head sail. Introduction of fore-and-aft rigs, both the lateen sail and the spritsail, the latter already attested in 2nd century BC in the northern Aegean Sea.","verdict":"Advance: Fore-and-aft lateen sails let Mediterranean and Arab ships sail closer to the wind, a step toward ocean exploration.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lateen","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1164174"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lateen_sail_1164174"},{"id":"w_forma_urbis_romae_1437391","name":"Forma Urbis Romae","year":205,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Marble map of ancient Rome (c.205-208). See Forma Urbis Romae (Severan Marble Plan), a carved marble ground plan of every architectural feature in ancient Rome.","verdict":"Advance: The Severan Marble Plan (c. 205) mapped every building in Rome at 1:240.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Forma_Urbis_Romae","https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Roman_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_forma_urbis_romae_1437391"},{"id":"w_phenotypic_trait_1211967","name":"Phenotypic trait","year":1856,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Specific feature of an organism. 1856–1863: Mendel studied the inheritance of traits between generations based on experiments involving garden pea plants. He deduced that there is a certain tangible essence that is passed on between generations from both parents.","verdict":"Advance: Observable traits as the unit of heredity studies, the basis of Mendel's experiments.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phenotypic_trait","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1211967"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_phenotypic_trait_1211967"},{"id":"w_gene_7187","name":"Gene","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Basic physical and functional unit of heredity. 1909: Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term gene. He also coined the terms genotype and phenotype.","verdict":"Advance: Wilhelm Johannsen's 1909 term \"gene\" separated heredity's unit from the visible trait, a concept that molecular biology later pinned to DNA.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gene","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gene_7187"},{"id":"w_genetic_linkage_843863","name":"Genetic linkage","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together. 1913: Alfred Sturtevant makes the first genetic map, showing that chromosomes contain linearly arranged genes.","verdict":"Advance: Alfred Sturtevant's 1913 fruit-fly map used linkage to order genes on a chromosome, the first genetic map and the logic of genome projects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genetic_linkage","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q843863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_genetic_linkage_843863"},{"id":"w_luria_delbr_ck_experiment_866818","name":"Luria-Delbrück experiment","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experiment showing that in bacteria, genetic mutations arise in the absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection.. 1943: Luria–Delbrück experiment: this experiment showed that genetic mutations conferring resistance to bacteriophage arise in the absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection.","verdict":"Advance: Luria and Delbrück's 1943 fluctuation test proved that bacterial mutations arise at random before selection, laying the statistical basis of molecular genetics (Nobel 1969).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luria%E2%80%93Delbr%C3%BCck_experiment","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q866818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_luria_delbr_ck_experiment_866818"},{"id":"w_avery_macleod_mccarty_experiment_782907","name":"Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1944 experiment by O. Avery, C. MacLeod and M. McCarty that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation. 1944: The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment isolates DNA as the genetic material (at that time called transforming principle ).","verdict":"Advance: Proved DNA is the hereditary material.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q782907"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_avery_macleod_mccarty_experiment_782907"},{"id":"w_transposable_element_121438","name":"Transposable element","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Semiparasitic DNA sequence, a major fraction of eukaryotic genomes. 1948: Barbara McClintock discovers transposons in maize.","verdict":"Advance: Barbara McClintock's maize \"jumping genes\" (1948) showed that genomes are dynamic; transposons make up nearly half the human genome and are now gene-engineering tools.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transposable_element","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_transposable_element_121438"},{"id":"w_nucleotide_base_422960","name":"Nucleotide base","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Nitrogen-containing biological compounds that form nucleosides. 1950: Erwin Chargaff determined the pairing method of nitrogenous bases. Chargaff and his team studied the DNA from multiple organisms and found three things (also known as Chargaff's rules ).","verdict":"Advance: Chargaff's 1950 rule that A equals T and G equals C gave Watson and Crick the base-pairing clue to the double helix.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_base","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422960"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_nucleotide_base_422960"},{"id":"w_photo_51_901530","name":"Photo 51","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Photograph of X-ray diffraction image of DNA fibers. 1952: an X-ray diffraction image of DNA was taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, a student supervised by Rosalind Franklin.","verdict":"Advance: Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling's 1952 X-ray image revealed DNA's helical form, the key data behind the 1953 double-helix model.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photo_51","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901530"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_photo_51_901530"},{"id":"w_operon_139677","name":"Operon","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Group of open reading frames under the same regulation. 1960: Jacob and collaborators discover the operon, a group of genes whose expression is coordinated by an operator.","verdict":"Advance: Jacob and Monod's lac operon (1961) showed how genes switch on and off, the first model of gene regulation and the basis of synthetic gene circuits.","dependencies":["w_gene_7187"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operon","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139677"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_operon_139677"},{"id":"w_rna_viruses_751911","name":"RNA viruses","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Subclass of viruses. 1964: Howard Temin showed using RNA viruses that the direction of DNA to RNA transcription can be reversed.","verdict":"Advance: Howard Temin's 1964 provirus hypothesis, confirmed in 1970 by reverse transcriptase, overturned the one-way DNA-to-RNA dogma and enabled HIV drugs and cDNA cloning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RNA_virus","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751911"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rna_viruses_751911"},{"id":"w_polymerase_chain_reaction_176996","name":"Polymerase chain reaction","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments from small amounts of short oligonucleotide primers. 1983: Kary Banks Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction enabling the easy amplification of DNA.","verdict":"Advance: Kary Mullis's 1983 polymerase chain reaction copies DNA a billionfold in hours, making it the workhorse of diagnostics, forensics and COVID testing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polymerase_chain_reaction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176996"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_polymerase_chain_reaction_176996"},{"id":"w_crispr_412563","name":"CRISPR","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Family of DNA sequence found in prokaryotic organisms. 1987: Yoshizumi Ishino discovers and describes part of a DNA sequence which later will be called CRISPR.","verdict":"Advance: Ishino's 1987 sighting of odd bacterial repeats became, by 2012, Doudna and Charpentier's programmable editor, now curing sickle-cell disease (Casgevy, 2023).","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CRISPR","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q412563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_crispr_412563"},{"id":"w_amniocentesis_473768","name":"Amniocentesis","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Medical procedure used primarily in prenatal diagnoses of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections. 1992: American and British scientists unveiled a technique for testing embryos in-vitro ( Amniocentesis ) for genetic abnormalities such as Cystic fibrosis and Hemophilia.","verdict":"Advance: Prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal disorders.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amniocentesis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q473768"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_amniocentesis_473768"},{"id":"w_z_dna_135758","name":"Z-DNA","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Left-handed double helical structure of DNA in which the helix winds to the left in a zigzag pattern. 1996: Alexander Rich discovered the Z-DNA, a type of DNA which is in a transient state, that is in some cases associated with DNA transcription.","verdict":"Advance: Andrew Wang and Alexander Rich's 1979 crystal of left-handed Z-DNA showed that the helix can flip form, which helps regulate genes and immune responses.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Z-DNA","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135758"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_z_dna_135758"},{"id":"w_hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation_1128050","name":"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical procedure to replace bone marrow stem cells. 2007: Timothy Ray Brown becomes the first person cured from HIV/AIDS through a Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.","verdict":"Advance: E. Donnall Thomas's bone-marrow transplants (from 1957, Nobel 1990) cured leukaemias, and one cured Timothy Ray Brown of HIV in 2007.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128050"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation_1128050"},{"id":"w_transcription_activator_like_effector_nu_7833921","name":"Transcription activator-like effector nucleases","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Artificial nucleases that cleave DNA at a defined distance from specific sequences. 2010: Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (or TALENs) are first used to cut specific sequences of DNA.","verdict":"Advance: TALENs (2010) gave biologists a modular code to cut DNA at chosen sites, a precise editor that bridged zinc fingers and CRISPR.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transcription_activator-like_effector_nuclease","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7833921"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_transcription_activator_like_effector_nu_7833921"},{"id":"w_corbel_12537","name":"Corbel","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Piece of masonry jutting out of a wall to carry any superincumbent weight. The kokoshnik is a semicircular or keel-like exterior decorative element in the traditional Russian architecture, a type of corbel blind arch. The name was inspired by the traditional Russian women's head-dress.","verdict":"Advance: Corbels carried balconies, vaults and kokoshnik gables in Russian and Gothic architecture, cantilevering masonry with nothing but stone and good balance.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Corbel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12537"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_corbel_12537"},{"id":"w_military_uniform_1196123","name":"Military uniform","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Standardised dress worn by members of the armed forces and paramilitaries of various nations. First known standard military uniform worn by Russian regular army, elite armed forces known as Streltsy.","verdict":"Compete: Standardized military dress, from Ming armies to European regiments, distinguished friend from foe and built unit identity, and it underpins the laws of war on combatant status.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Military_uniform","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1196123"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_military_uniform_1196123"},{"id":"w_siege_tower_622666","name":"Siege tower","year":-850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Usually multi-storey wooden structures on wheels or castors, designed to scale enemy fortified walls. The battery-tower is a late type of siege tower, carrying artillery inside it, a development of the gulyay-gorod concept.","verdict":"Compete: Wheeled towers, used from the Assyrians to Rhodes, put attackers level with defenders' walls, until gunpowder artillery made them obsolete.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Siege_tower","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q622666"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_siege_tower_622666"},{"id":"w_string_instrument_1798603","name":"String instrument","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Musical instrument that generates tones by one or more strings stretched between two points. The balalaika is a stringed instrument with a characteristic triangular body and 3 strings (or sometimes 6, in 3 courses), perhaps the best-known national Russian musical instrument.","verdict":"Advance: From lyre to balalaika to violin, strung instruments helped make pitch measurable; Pythagoras' string ratios are the root of Western harmonic theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/String_instrument","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1798603"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_string_instrument_1798603"},{"id":"w_naryshkin_baroque_616753","name":"Naryshkin Baroque","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Russian architectural style. Naryshkin Baroque. Also called Moscow Baroque, or Muscovite Baroque, is the name given to a particular style of Baroque architecture and decoration which was fashionable in Moscow from the turn of the 17th into the early 18th centuries.","verdict":"Advance: Naryshkin Baroque fused Western ornament with Russian church forms in the 1690s, and it signalled Peter the Great's coming opening to Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Naryshkin_Baroque","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q616753"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_naryshkin_baroque_616753"},{"id":"w_filimonovo_toys_4483933","name":"Filimonovo toys","year":1600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ceramic Russian folk art toys. Filimonovo toys","verdict":"Advance: These whistling clay toys from Tula show a village craft preserving local identity across four centuries.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filimonovo_toy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4483933"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_filimonovo_toys_4483933"},{"id":"w_rushnyk_1761133","name":"Rushnyk","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"East Slavic ritual embroidered cloth. Rushnik is a ritual cloth embroidered with symbols and cryptograms of the ancient world.","verdict":"Advance: Embroidered rushnyky carried family and regional symbols through births, weddings and funerals, a portable archive of Ukrainian and Belarusian folk design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rushnyk","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1761133"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_rushnyk_1761133"},{"id":"w_heat_exchanger_189124","name":"Heat exchanger","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. A radiator is a heat exchanger used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling or heating. The first historical application of radiator was in central heating systems.","verdict":"Advance: Exchangers transfer heat between fluids efficiently, central to engines, refrigerators, power plants and car radiators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_exchanger","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_heat_exchanger_189124"},{"id":"w_russian_cruiser_general_admiral_932180","name":"Russian cruiser General-Admiral","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1873 General-Admiral-class cruiser. General-Admiral by Andrei Alexandrovich Popov","verdict":"Compete: Andrei Popov's General-Admiral (1873) was among the first armoured cruisers, built to raid enemy commerce at sea.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cruiser_General-Admiral","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q932180"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_russian_cruiser_general_admiral_932180"},{"id":"w_yablochkov_candle_1676882","name":"Yablochkov candle","year":1870,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electric carbon arc lamp. Invented in 1876 by Pavel Yablochkov, the Yablochkov candle was the first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp and was used for the world's first electric street lightning at the Exposition Universelle (1878) in Paris.","verdict":"Advance: Pavel Yablochkov's 1876 arc candle lit Paris boulevards in 1878, the first practical electric street lighting.","dependencies":["w_arc_lamp_841282"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yablochkov_candle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1676882"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_yablochkov_candle_1676882"},{"id":"w_byzantine_revival_architecture_966571","name":"Byzantine Revival architecture","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Architectural revival movement. The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour is the main and largest cathedral of the Russian Orthodox Church, located in Moscow on the bank of the Moskva River. It is the tallest Eastern Orthodox church in the world.","verdict":"Advance: The Byzantine Revival built domes such as Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, using historical style to express national identity.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neo-Byzantine_architecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q966571"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_byzantine_revival_architecture_966571"},{"id":"w_icebreaker_14978","name":"Icebreaker","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Special-purpose ship or boat capable of maneuvering through frozen bodies of water and remove ice. A polar icebreaker is an icebreaker capable of operating in the polar waters with their vast and thick multi-year sea ice.","verdict":"Advance: Steam icebreakers like the Yermak (1899) kept Arctic ports open, and they opened polar routes.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Icebreaker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14978"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_icebreaker_14978"},{"id":"w_fire_fighting_foam_903513","name":"Fire-fighting foam","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Foam that is used for fire suppression. Fire fighting foam is foam used for fire suppression. Its role is to cool the fire and to coat the fuel, preventing its contact with oxygen, resulting in suppression of combustion.","verdict":"Advance: Protein and synthetic foams smother fuel fires by cutting off oxygen, key at airports and refineries, though PFAS versions are being phased out.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Firefighting_foam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q903513"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_fire_fighting_foam_903513"},{"id":"w_mosaic_133067","name":"Mosaic","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Image or writing made from an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. The church contains over 7500 square metres of mosaics — according to its restorers, more than any other church in the world.","verdict":"Advance: Sumerian cone mosaics at Uruk led to Roman floors and Byzantine gold vaults, a durable way to make images that last for millennia.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mosaic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133067"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_mosaic_133067"},{"id":"w_synthetic_rubber_6714735","name":"Synthetic rubber","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Any artificial elastomer. The first commercially viable synthetic rubber by Sergei Lebedev.","verdict":"Advance: Sergei Lebedev's 1910 polybutadiene led the way to synthetic rubber, which was vital when WWII cut off natural supplies.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Synthetic_rubber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6714735"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_synthetic_rubber_6714735"},{"id":"w_russky_vityaz_1854827","name":"Russky Vityaz","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1913 airliner by Igor Sikorsky. Russky Vityaz by Igor Sikorsky","verdict":"Advance: Sikorsky's Russky Vityaz (1913), the first four-engine plane, proved that large multi-engine aircraft could fly.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sikorsky_Russky_Vityaz","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1854827"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_russky_vityaz_1854827"},{"id":"w_k_gresse_track_4367094","name":"Kégresse track","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Belt-Track designed to be retrofitted onto the drive wheels of a standard automobile, to convert it for use in rough or snowy/icy terrain.. Also known as Kégresse track, invented by Adolphe Kégresse.","verdict":"Advance: Adolphe Kégresse's 1910 half-track turned cars into snow vehicles and crossed the Sahara in 1922.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/K%C3%A9gresse_track","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4367094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_k_gresse_track_4367094"},{"id":"w_sikorsky_ilya_muromets_280488","name":"Sikorsky Ilya Muromets","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Russian Airplane. Sikorsky Ilya Muromets by Igor Sikorsky","verdict":"Advance: The four-engine Ilya Muromets (1913) was the first airliner with a passenger cabin.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sikorsky_Ilya_Muromets","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q280488"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sikorsky_ilya_muromets_280488"},{"id":"w_russian_lacquer_art_1747411","name":"Russian lacquer art","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Art of making papier-mâché items, lacquered and hand-painted in Russia. Also Russian lacquer art, Kholuy miniature, Mstyora miniature","verdict":"Advance: Palekh and Fedoskino miniaturists painted lacquered papier-mâché boxes, folk craft reborn after icon painting was suppressed.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_lacquer_art","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1747411"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_russian_lacquer_art_1747411"},{"id":"w_rockwell_scale_502723","name":"Rockwell scale","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rockwell hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material with a 120° diamond spheroconical under 150 kgf. Pobedit is a specialized alloy that is close in hardness to diamond (85–90 on the Rockwell scale ). It was created in the USSR in 1929 and was used in mining, metal-cutting and as a material for special mechanical parts.","verdict":"Advance: Hugh and Stanley Rockwell's 1919 indentation test measured hardness quickly, still the standard quality check in metalworking.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_hardness_test","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502723"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_rockwell_scale_502723"},{"id":"w_normandie_304703","name":"Normandie","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ship built in 1935. Vladimir Yourkevitch invented the modern ship hull design when he designed the SS Normandie. [ citation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Vladimir Yourkevitch's hull for the SS Normandie (1935) cut drag and set Atlantic speed records.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SS_Normandie","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q304703"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_normandie_304703"},{"id":"w_drum_machine_831698","name":"Drum machine","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic musical instrument that creates percussion sounds. by Léon Theremin, the first drum machine","verdict":"Advance: Léon Theremin's Rhythmicon (1931) generated rhythms electrically, beginning a line of drum machines that reshaped pop, hip hop and dance music.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Drum_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831698"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_drum_machine_831698"},{"id":"w_artificial_leather_1792537","name":"Artificial leather","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Man-made material that has similar properties and appearance to animal leather. Kirza is a type of artificial leather based on the multi-layer textile fabric, modified by membrane-like substances, produced mainly in the Soviet Union and Russia as a cheap and effective replacement for natural leather.","verdict":"Advance: Synthetic leather; cheaper, animal-free material.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_leather","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1792537"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_artificial_leather_1792537"},{"id":"w_rapid_transit_5503","name":"Rapid transit","year":1863,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"High-capacity public transport generally used in urban areas. The Moscow Metro, which spans almost the entire Russian capital, is Europe's busiest metro system. Opened in 1935, it is well known for the ornate design of many of its stations, which contain numerous examples of socialist realist art.","verdict":"Advance: London's Metropolitan Railway opened in 1863, the first underground railway; metros now move billions of riders a year.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rapid_transit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5503"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rapid_transit_5503"},{"id":"w_drogue_parachute_591399","name":"Drogue parachute","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Parachute for high speed deployment. The drag chute or braking parachute is an application of the drogue parachute for decreasing the landing distance of an aircraft below that available solely from the aircraft's brakes.","verdict":"Advance: Drogue parachutes stabilize and slow fast vehicles, from fighter landings to Apollo and Crew Dragon recovery.","dependencies":["w_parachute_482816"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Drogue_parachute","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q591399"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_drogue_parachute_591399"},{"id":"w_arctic_exploration_1516897","name":"Arctic exploration","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Physical exploration of the Arctic region of the Earth. Soviet and Russian drifting ice stations are important contributors to exploration of the Arctic.","verdict":"Advance: Polar drifting stations brought systematic Arctic science.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arctic_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1516897"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_arctic_exploration_1516897"},{"id":"w_welding_131172","name":"Welding","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Any fabrication process for joining workpieces without adding a dissimilar filler or adhesive material. 1919 – The merchant ship Fullagar has the first all welded hull.","verdict":"Advance: Arc welding, spurred by WWI shipbuilding (the first all-welded hull in 1920), replaced rivets and sped up construction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Welding","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131172"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_welding_131172"},{"id":"w_tail_rotor_795064","name":"Tail rotor","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small tail-mounted helicopter rotor. The world's first tail rotor helicopter and first amphibious helicopter by Igor Sikorsky.","verdict":"Advance: Tail rotors counteract main-rotor torque, making single-rotor helicopters controllable since Sikorsky's 1939 VS-300.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tail_rotor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795064"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tail_rotor_795064"},{"id":"w_katyusha_192223","name":"Katyusha","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet/Russian multiple launch rocket system. Katyusha rocket launcher","verdict":"Compete: The truck-mounted BM-13 Katyusha fired 16 rockets in seconds, saturating an area and pioneering the modern multiple rocket launcher.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Katyusha_rocket_launcher","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_katyusha_192223"},{"id":"w_a_40_krylya_tanka_276140","name":"A-40 Krylya Tanka","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet winged tank prototype. Antonov A-40 by Oleg Antonov","verdict":"Compete: A tank glider prototype; a dead-end experiment in airborne armor.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Antonov_A-40","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q276140"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_a_40_krylya_tanka_276140"},{"id":"w_selective_fire_1637214","name":"Selective fire","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ability of a firearm to fire in different modes as chosen by the operator. The AK-47 (other names include Avtomat Kalashnikova, Kalashnikov, or AK ) is a selective fire, gas operated 7.62×39mm assault rifle, developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Kalashnikov.","verdict":"Compete: Rifles that switch between single shots and bursts, from the StG 44 to the AK-47, made the assault rifle the standard infantry weapon.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Select_fire","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1637214"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_selective_fire_1637214"},{"id":"w_staged_combustion_cycle_519432","name":"Staged combustion cycle","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of rocket engine operation. Aleksei Isaev proposed the Staged combustion cycle widely used in rocket engines.","verdict":"Advance: Aleksei Isaev's staged-combustion cycle (1949) routes preburner exhaust into the main chamber, reaching the efficiency of the RD-180 and Raptor.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Staged_combustion_cycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q519432"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_staged_combustion_cycle_519432"},{"id":"w_obninsk_nuclear_power_plant_1739453","name":"Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First in the world reactor electricity. Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant by Igor Kurchatov","verdict":"Advance: The first reactor to put power on a grid, at Obninsk.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1739453"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_obninsk_nuclear_power_plant_1739453"},{"id":"w_r_11_zemlya_7273245","name":"R-11 Zemlya","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet tactical ballistic missile. R-11 Zemlya submarine-launched ballistic missile by Victor Makeev, Project 611 ballistic missile submarine","verdict":"Compete: The R-11 Zemlya (1953), adapted for submarines in 1955, made the Soviet navy the first to fire a ballistic missile at sea.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R-11_Zemlya","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7273245"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_r_11_zemlya_7273245"},{"id":"w_bn_350_reactor_539412","name":"BN-350 reactor","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear reactor. BN350 nuclear fast reactor.","verdict":"Advance: The BN-350 fast reactor (1973) also desalinated water for Aktau, a dual-use model for arid regions.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BN-350_reactor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q539412"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_bn_350_reactor_539412"},{"id":"w_launch_pad_1353183","name":"Launch pad","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Facility from which rockets are launched. Baikonur Cosmodrome launch complex by Vladimir Barmin","verdict":"Advance: Vladimir Barmin's Baikonur pad, built in 1955–57, launched Sputnik and Gagarin and is still in use.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Launch_pad","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1353183"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_launch_pad_1353183"},{"id":"w_setun_2877829","name":"Setun","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet ternary computer. Setun, by Nikolay Brusentsov","verdict":"Advance: Nikolay Brusentsov's Setun (1958) was the only ternary computer to be mass-produced.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Setun","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2877829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_setun_2877829"},{"id":"w_luna_1_1159913","name":"Luna 1","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Soviet lunar probe. Luna 1, also the first escape velocity spacecraft and the first Sun satellite.","verdict":"Advance: Luna 1 (January 1959) was the first spacecraft to reach escape velocity, passing the Moon and orbiting the Sun.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1159913"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_1_1159913"},{"id":"w_project_183r_1363510","name":"Project 183R","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1957 Soviet small missile boat class. Komar-class missile boat","verdict":"Compete: The Komar boats sank the Israeli destroyer Eilat in 1967, the first ship sunk by anti-ship missiles, overturning naval doctrine.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Komar-class_missile_boat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1363510"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_project_183r_1363510"},{"id":"w_vostok_1_182524","name":"Vostok 1","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Spaceflight of the Vostok programme. Vostok 1 ( Russian: Восток-1, Orient 1 or East 1 ) was the first human spaceflight. The Vostok 3KA spacecraft was launched on 12 April 1961, taking into space Yuri Gagarin, a cosmonaut from the Soviet Union.","verdict":"Advance: Yuri Gagarin orbited Earth once on Vostok 1, 12 April 1961, the first human in space.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vostok_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182524"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vostok_1_182524"},{"id":"w_pulsed_plasma_thruster_1509676","name":"Pulsed plasma thruster","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of spacecraft plasma propulsion system. Pulsed plasma thruster","verdict":"Advance: Pulsed plasma thrusters, flown on Zond 2 (1964), give small satellites precise, tiny impulses.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pulsed_plasma_thruster","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1509676"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pulsed_plasma_thruster_1509676"},{"id":"w_heavy_lift_launch_vehicle_11222716","name":"Heavy-lift launch vehicle","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Orbital launch vehicle capable of lifting heavy payloads to low-Earth orbit. The most used heavy lift launch system","verdict":"Advance: Heavy lift, from the Saturn V (1967) to Falcon Heavy and Starship, carries large payloads and deep-space missions.","dependencies":["icbm"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11222716","https://grokipedia.com/page/Proton_(rocket_family)"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heavy_lift_launch_vehicle_11222716"},{"id":"w_luna_9_1159933","name":"Luna 9","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Lander in the Soviet Union's Luna programme. Luna 9 by Georgy Babakin","verdict":"Advance: Luna 9 (February 1966) made the first soft landing on the Moon, proving the surface could bear a lander.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_9","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1159933"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_9_1159933"},{"id":"w_yakovlev_yak_40_505663","name":"Yakovlev Yak-40","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet trijet airliner family. The Yakovlev Yak-40 was the world's first regional jet.","verdict":"Advance: Yakovlev's Yak-40 (1968) was the first regional jet, serving rough airstrips across the USSR.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yakovlev_Yak-40","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505663"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_yakovlev_yak_40_505663"},{"id":"w_ground_effect_vehicle_309398","name":"Ground-effect vehicle","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Machine to fly in air just above sea or ground using air-surfice reaction. The largest ekranoplan and the second largest fixed-wing aircraft by Rostislav Alexeyev","verdict":"Advance: Soviet ekranoplans flew just over the sea on ground effect, fast but too inefficient for commerce.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ground-effect_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309398"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ground_effect_vehicle_309398"},{"id":"w_soyuz_579421","name":"Soyuz","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space programme. Soyuz spacecraft","verdict":"Advance: Soyuz (1967), with more than 150 crewed flights, became the longest-serving crew spacecraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soyuz_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q579421"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_soyuz_579421"},{"id":"w_heterojunction_1616270","name":"Heterojunction","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Interface that occurs between two layers or regions of dissimilar crystalline semiconductors. Creation by Zhores Alferov of Semiconductor Heterostructures which play important role in modern electronics ( Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000).","verdict":"Advance: Zhores Alferov's 1970s heterojunction lasers made fibre optics and CD players practical, earning the 2000 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heterojunction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1616270"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_heterojunction_1616270"},{"id":"w_lunokhod_1_261052","name":"Lunokhod 1","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet lunar rover; first rover to operate on the Moon. Lunokhod 1, the first space exploration rover, reached the Moon surface on 17 November 1970.","verdict":"Advance: Lunokhod 1 (1970) drove 10 km on the Moon, the first robotic rover on another world.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lunokhod_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q261052"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lunokhod_1_261052"},{"id":"w_salyut_1_211761","name":"Salyut 1","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"First space station launched by the Soviet Union. Salyut 1, first space station, launched by Soviet Union.","verdict":"Advance: Salyut 1 (April 1971) was the first space station, though its Soyuz 11 crew died on return.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Salyut_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211761"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_salyut_1_211761"},{"id":"w_world_computer_chess_championship_2557178","name":"World Computer Chess Championship","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer chess competition. Kaissa became the first computer chess world champion in 1974.","verdict":"Advance: Kaissa won the first World Computer Chess Championship in 1974, a showcase for Soviet programming.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/World_Computer_Chess_Championship","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2557178"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_world_computer_chess_championship_2557178"},{"id":"w_cubic_zirconia_225666","name":"Cubic zirconia","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Material. The first commercially viable process to manufacture cubic zirconia.","verdict":"Advance: Soviet researchers at the Lebedev Institute grew cubic zirconia by skull melting in 1973, making cheap brilliant gems and laser crystals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cubic_zirconia","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q225666"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_cubic_zirconia_225666"},{"id":"w_aps_underwater_rifle_296296","name":"APS underwater rifle","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Underwater firearm. APS underwater assault rifle by Vladimir Simonov","verdict":"Compete: A firearm that works underwater.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/APS_underwater_rifle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296296"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_aps_underwater_rifle_296296"},{"id":"w_nuclear_powered_icebreaker_544823","name":"Nuclear-powered icebreaker","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ship type. On December 5, the Lenin, the first nuclear-powered surface vessel, a Soviet icebreaker, is launched from the Admiralty Shipyards in Leningrad.","verdict":"Advance: The Soviet icebreaker Lenin (1959) was the first nuclear surface ship, keeping Arctic routes open.","dependencies":["w_icebreaker_14978"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q544823"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nuclear_powered_icebreaker_544823"},{"id":"w_rt_21_temp_2s_2093191","name":"RT-21 Temp 2S","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Intercontinental ballistic missile. RT-21 Temp 2S by Alexander Nadiradze","verdict":"Compete: Nadiradze's Temp-2S (1976) was the first Soviet road-mobile ICBM, hard to target and therefore restricted by SALT II.","dependencies":["icbm"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RT-21_Temp_2S","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2093191"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rt_21_temp_2s_2093191"},{"id":"w_azov_4058395","name":"Azov","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1973 Project 1134B Berkut-B guided missile cruiser. First installed on Azov, a Kara-class cruiser","verdict":"Compete: Soviet guided-missile cruiser.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cruiser_Azov","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4058395"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_azov_4058395"},{"id":"w_supersonic_speed_221337","name":"Supersonic speed","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Speed that exceeds the speed of sound. 1947 - Chuck Yeager achieves the first crewed supersonic flight in a Bell X-1 rocket-powered aircraft","verdict":"Advance: Chuck Yeager's 14 October 1947 flight broke the sound barrier, opening supersonic flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Supersonic_speed","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221337"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_supersonic_speed_221337"},{"id":"w_mir_48604","name":"Mir","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1986–2001 modular space station in low Earth orbit. Mir space station","verdict":"Advance: Mir (1986–2001) hosted crews for 12 years, including Valeri Polyakov's 437-day record.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mir","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48604"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mir_48604"},{"id":"w_rocket_engine_335225","name":"Rocket engine","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Non-air breathing jet engine used to propel a missile or vehicle. 1961 – RL10 liquid hydrogen-fuelled rocket engine first flight.","verdict":"Advance: Goddard's 1926 liquid-fuel rocket at Auburn began the engines that power orbital flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rocket_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335225"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rocket_engine_335225"},{"id":"w_borehole_502102","name":"Kola Superdeep Borehole","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Narrow shaft bored in the ground. The deepest borehole in the world.","verdict":"Advance: The Kola Superdeep Borehole reached 12,262 m in 1989, finding hot water and microfossils deeper than geologists expected.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Borehole","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502102"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_borehole_502102"},{"id":"w_sukhoi_su_27_173680","name":"Sukhoi Su-27","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Fighter aircraft family by Sukhoi. Sukhoi Su-27, Pugachev's Cobra maneuver.","verdict":"Compete: The Su-27 (1985), famed for the Pugachev's Cobra manoeuvre, gave the USSR an agile long-range fighter rivalling the F-15.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sukhoi_Su-27","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173680"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_sukhoi_su_27_173680"},{"id":"w_disk_238231","name":"Disk","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Plane figure, bounded by circle. The thermoplan is a disc -shaped airship of hybrid type, currently under development in Russia. The key feature of thermoplan is its two section structure.","verdict":"Advance: Disc-shaped hybrid airships like the thermoplan promised heavy-lift capability but remain experimental.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Disk_(mathematics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q238231"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_disk_238231"},{"id":"w_combustion_chamber_909434","name":"Combustion chamber","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Reaction chamber within a combustion engine. Dual- combustion chamber, dual- nozzle rocket engine, derived from the RD-170 used in Soviet Zenit rockets, and currently provides first-stage power for the American Atlas V launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: Optimized combustion chambers improve engine efficiency and lower emissions.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Combustion_chamber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q909434"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_combustion_chamber_909434"},{"id":"w_superconductivity_124131","name":"Superconductivity","year":1911,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Electrical conductivity with exactly zero resistance. Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovered Superconductivity.","verdict":"Advance: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's 1911 superconductivity in mercury now enables MRI magnets.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Superconductivity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124131"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_superconductivity_124131"},{"id":"w_web_server_11288","name":"Web server","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer software that distributes web pages. One of the most widely used web servers in the world, created by Igor Sysoev.","verdict":"Advance: Tim Berners-Lee's 1990 CERN httpd served the first web pages; Apache and nginx now serve most sites.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Web_server","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11288"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_web_server_11288"},{"id":"w_graphene_169917","name":"Graphene","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Two-dimensional crystalline structure of carbon. Creation of Graphene by Russian-born, British physicists Konstantin Novoselov and Andre Geim at the University of Manchester. They were awarded with Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery in 2010.","verdict":"Advance: Geim and Novoselov's 2004 Scotch-tape isolation of graphene showed a one-atom-thick material stronger than steel (Nobel 2010).","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graphene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169917"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_graphene_169917"},{"id":"w_bomber_170877","name":"Bomber","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Airplane intended to attack ground targets using aerial bombs. Aviation Thermobaric Bomb of Increased Power, nicknamed \" Father of All Bombs \", is a Russian -made air-delivered/land activated thermobaric weapon, the most powerful conventional (non- nuclear ) weapon in the world.","verdict":"Compete: Sikorsky's Ilya Muromets became the first heavy bomber in 1914, turning aircraft into strategic weapons against cities and industry.","dependencies":["airplane"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bomber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_bomber_170877"},{"id":"w_webcam_29576","name":"Webcam","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer-connected video camera that streams its image in real time to a computer network. The first randomized webcam chatroom","verdict":"Advance: Cambridge's Trojan Room coffee pot camera (1991) was the first webcam, streamed over the web in 1993.","dependencies":["w_digital_camera_62927"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Webcam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29576"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_webcam_29576"},{"id":"w_low_floor_tram_5063597","name":"Low-floor tram","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tram that has no stair steps between entrances and the passenger cabin. The first Russian produced low-floor tram","verdict":"Advance: Low-floor trams with level boarding made public transport accessible to wheelchair users and prams.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Low-floor_tram","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5063597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_low_floor_tram_5063597"},{"id":"w_angular_resolution_740898","name":"Angular resolution","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ability of any image-forming device to distinguish small details of an object. Space based radiotelescope with the highest angular resolution (RadioAstron project).","verdict":"Advance: Space radio interferometry sharpened angular resolution.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Angular_resolution","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q740898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_angular_resolution_740898"},{"id":"w_cable_stayed_bridge_158555","name":"Cable-stayed bridge","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of bridge. The world's longest cable-stayed bridge","verdict":"Advance: Cable-stayed bridges, from Strömsund (1955) to the Russky Bridge (2012), span long distances economically.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cable-stayed_bridge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_cable_stayed_bridge_158555"},{"id":"w_carbon_nanotube_1778729","name":"Carbon nanotube","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure. industrial-scale production of carbon nanotubes","verdict":"Advance: Carbon nanotubes, made at industrial scale by 2010, are being added to batteries and composites for strength and conductivity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carbon_nanotube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1778729"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_carbon_nanotube_1778729"},{"id":"w_hypersonic_weapon_51777060","name":"Hypersonic weapon","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Class of weapon. Nuclear-capable hypersonic air-launched ballistic missile.","verdict":"Compete: Hypersonic glide vehicles such as China's DF-17 and Russia's Avangard manoeuvre at Mach 5+, challenging missile defence.","dependencies":["w_scramjet_60591","icbm"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hypersonic_weapon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q51777060","https://grokipedia.com/page/Scramjet"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_hypersonic_weapon_51777060"},{"id":"w_gam_covid_vac_98270627","name":"Gam-COVID-Vac","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Russian viral vector vaccine based on human adenovirus. First vaccine of its kind ( Gam-COVID-Vac ) approved by governmental authorities.","verdict":"Advance: Russia's Sputnik V, registered in August 2020 before Phase 3 trials ended, used two adenovirus vectors; it was later reported 91% effective.","dependencies":["w_covid_19_vaccine_87719492"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q98270627"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gam_covid_vac_98270627"},{"id":"w_oscar_class_submarine_513869","name":"Oscar-class submarine","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Cruise missile submarine class. Commissioning of a unique modified Oscar II class submarine capable of equipping an autonomous, nuclear powered and armed unmanned underwater vehicle.","verdict":"Compete: Oscar-class submarines carry 24 Granit anti-carrier missiles; the Kursk's sinking in 2000 killed all 118 aboard.","dependencies":["nuclear_sub"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oscar-class_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q513869"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_oscar_class_submarine_513869"},{"id":"w_unguided_bomb_1454201","name":"Unguided bomb","year":1911,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Aerial bomb without guidance, designed for ballistic delivery. Guidance and gliding kit to convert unguided bombs into precision-guided glide-bombs.","verdict":"Compete: Giulio Gavotti hand-dropped grenades from his plane in Libya in 1911, the first aerial bombing, which began the strategic bombing doctrines of the 20th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Unguided_bomb","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1454201"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_unguided_bomb_1454201"},{"id":"w_electric_vessel_1326749","name":"Electric vessel","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Watercraft propelled by an electric drivetrain. Immisch & Co, established by Moritz Immisch, establishes an electric boat department - probably the world's first fleet of electric launches for hire, with a chain of electrical charging stations established along the River Thames.","verdict":"Advance: Moritz Immisch's 1880s electric launches cruised the Thames silently, early battery-powered watercraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_boat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1326749"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_electric_vessel_1326749"},{"id":"w_loitering_munition_15832656","name":"Loitering munition","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Weapon system category in which the munition loiters around the target area for some time, searches for targets, and attacks once a target is located. Loitering munition which uses a long distance fiber optic cable to allow for higher quality signal transmission, as well as making it immune to signal jamming.","verdict":"Compete: Loitering munitions such as the Harop and the Switchblade circle until they find a target, and they decided battles in Nagorno-Karabakh (2020) and Ukraine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Loitering_munition","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15832656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_loitering_munition_15832656"},{"id":"w_russification_332695","name":"Russification","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Measures to increase the influence of Russian culture and language. First flight of a fully Russified Superjet aircraft equipped with domestic Aviadvigatel PD-14 engines.","verdict":"Drift: Forced cultural assimilation; imposed uniformity, not capability.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Russification","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332695"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_russification_332695"},{"id":"w_van_allen_radiation_belt_188533","name":"Van Allen radiation belt","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Zone of energetic charged particles around the planet Earth. Confirmed existence of the Van Allen radiation belt. USA ( ABMA ) Explorer 1","verdict":"Advance: James Van Allen's Explorer 1 and 3 Geiger counters (1958) revealed Earth's radiation belts, the first discovery of the space age.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Van_Allen_radiation_belt","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188533"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_van_allen_radiation_belt_188533"},{"id":"w_heliocentric_orbit_737809","name":"Heliocentric orbit","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Orbit around the barycenter of the Sun. 2 January 1959 First lunar flyby (failed lunar impact); first artificial satellite in heliocentric orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Luna 1 entered a heliocentric orbit in 1959, the first artificial planet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heliocentric_orbit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q737809"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heliocentric_orbit_737809"},{"id":"w_mariner_9_203801","name":"Mariner 9","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mars orbiter. 28 May 1971 Mars orbiter (arrived after Mariner 9 ); First Mars lander (first image taken from the surface of another planet, though the received image did not show anything);","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 9 (November 1971) became the first spacecraft to orbit another planet and mapped Olympus Mons.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_9","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203801"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_9_203801"},{"id":"w_international_cometary_explorer_1475301","name":"International Cometary Explorer","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American magnetospheric research satellite. 12 August 1978 Solar wind investigations; later redesignated International Cometary Explorer and performed Comet Giacobini-Zinner and Comet Halley flybys – First comet flyby","verdict":"Advance: ISEE-3, renamed ICE, flew through comet Giacobini–Zinner's tail in 1985, the first comet encounter.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/International_Cometary_Explorer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1475301"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_international_cometary_explorer_1475301"},{"id":"w_coma_259854","name":"Stardust comet-dust sample return","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cloud of gas or a trail around a comet or asteroid. 7 February 1999 First comet coma sample return (returned 15 January 2006)","verdict":"Advance: NASA's Stardust captured comet coma dust and returned it to Earth.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coma_(comet)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q259854"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_coma_259854"},{"id":"w_pluto_339","name":"Discovery of Pluto","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Dwarf planet in the Solar System. 19 January 2006 First Pluto /Charon flyby (on 14 July 2015); continued on to 486958 Arrokoth flyby (on 1 January 2019)","verdict":"Advance: Clyde Tombaugh found Pluto in 1930 at Lowell Observatory; New Horizons flew past in 2015.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pluto","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pluto_339"},{"id":"w_luna_24_657771","name":"Luna 24","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Last sovietic space probe. USSR Luna 24 Moon Success Lander","verdict":"Advance: Luna 24 (1976) returned 170 g of lunar regolith, the last lunar sample until China's Chang'e 5 in 2020.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_24","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q657771"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_24_657771"},{"id":"w_chang_e_5_10944018","name":"Chang'e 5","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese lunar lander. 23 October 2014 Circumlunar mission and Earth reentry; technology demonstration to prepare for Chang'e 5 mission","verdict":"Advance: China's first lunar sample return.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chang'e_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10944018"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chang_e_5_10944018"},{"id":"w_halo_orbit_1133479","name":"Halo orbit","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Periodic, three-dimensional orbit near the L1, L2 or L3 Lagrange points in the three-body problem of orbital mechanics. 20 May 2018 Relay satellite for Chang'e 4 in Halo orbit around Earth–Moon L 2 Lagrange point","verdict":"Advance: Halo orbits at Lagrange points host JWST and the planned Gateway, with stable vantage points.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Halo_orbit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133479"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_halo_orbit_1133479"},{"id":"w_jupiter_trojan_8101032","name":"Lucy mission to Jupiter trojans","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Asteroid sharing the orbit of Jupiter. 16 October 2021 Flyby of six Jupiter trojans and two main belt asteroids","verdict":"Advance: Lucy (2021) flies past Jupiter's trojan asteroids, relics of the early Solar System.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jupiter_trojan","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8101032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_jupiter_trojan_8101032"},{"id":"w_orion_211727","name":"Orion","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Crewed spacecraft designed for the Artemis program. 16 November 2022 Uncrewed lunar orbital test of Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System. The cubesats are launched as rideshares and will execute their own missions.","verdict":"Advance: NASA's Orion flew uncrewed around the Moon on Artemis I in 2022.","dependencies":["w_reusable_spacecraft_96401666"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Orion_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211727"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_orion_211727"},{"id":"w_ganymede_3169","name":"JUICE mission to Ganymede","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Galilean moon of Jupiter. 14 April 2023 Jupiter/ Ganymede orbiter","verdict":"Advance: ESA's JUICE mission to Jupiter's icy moons, Ganymede first.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ganymede_(moon)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3169","https://grokipedia.com/page/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63350"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ganymede_3169"},{"id":"w_crown_cork_13845007","name":"Crown cork","year":1892,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of bottle cap. Bottle caps, or closures, are used to seal the openings of bottles of many types. They can be small circular pieces of metal, usually steel, with plastic backings, and for plastic bottles a plastic cap is used instead.","verdict":"Advance: William Painter's 1892 crimped crown cap sealed carbonated drinks reliably, enabling the bottled-beverage industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crown_cork","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13845007"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_crown_cork_13845007"},{"id":"w_bicycle_saddle_1076532","name":"Bicycle saddle","year":1892,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"One of 5 contact points on an upright bicycle. A bicycle seat, unlike a bicycle saddle, is designed to support the rider's buttocks and back, usually in a semi-reclined position.","verdict":"Advance: Ergonomic saddles from Brooks (1866) and later designers distribute rider weight, making long rides possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bicycle_saddle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1076532"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bicycle_saddle_1076532"},{"id":"w_rangefinder_1643652","name":"Rangefinder","year":1894,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device for determining the distance to an object; device that measures distance from the observer to a target, in a process called ranging. A stadimeter, a type of optical rangefinder, is an optical device for estimating the range to an object of known height by measuring the angle between the top and bottom of the object as observed at the device.","verdict":"Advance: Barr and Stroud's 1888 coincidence rangefinder measured distances for naval guns and cameras.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rangefinder","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1643652"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_rangefinder_1643652"},{"id":"w_bicycle_11442","name":"Bicycle","year":1817,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Pedal-driven two-wheel vehicle. 1816 – The most likely originator of the Bicycle is the German, Baron Karl von Drais, who rode his 1816 machine while collecting taxes from his tenants.","verdict":"Advance: Bicycles, from Drais's running machine to pedals and chains, gave cheap, efficient personal mobility, now the most efficient human transport.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bicycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11442"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bicycle_11442"},{"id":"w_olympic_sport_212434","name":"Olympic sport","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of sport with events contested at the Olympic Games. Volleyball is an Olympic sport in which two teams of 6 active players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points against one another by grounding a ball on the other team's court under organized rules. William G.","verdict":"Advance: The modern Olympic programme, launched in 1896, standardized rules for dozens of sports, so athletes worldwide compete on common terms.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Olympic_sports","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212434"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_olympic_sport_212434"},{"id":"w_barbecue_461696","name":"Charcoal briquette","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cooking method. A charcoal briquette, or briquet is a block of flammable charcoal matter which is used as fuel to start and maintain a fire, mainly used for food preparation over an open fire or a barbecue.","verdict":"Advance: Ellsworth Zwoyer's 1897 briquette made cheap, uniform charcoal, which Henry Ford later produced from car-factory wood scrap.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Barbecue","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461696"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_barbecue_461696"},{"id":"w_browning_auto_5_991165","name":"Browning Auto-5","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Type of semi-automatic shotgun. A semi-automatic, or self-loading shot gun is a firearm that requires only a trigger pull for each round that is fired, unlike a single-action revolver, a pump-action firearm, a bolt-action firearm, or a lever-action firearm, which all r…","verdict":"Compete: John Browning's 1900 Auto-5, the first mass-produced semi-automatic shotgun, sold for nearly a century.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Browning_Auto-5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q991165"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_browning_auto_5_991165"},{"id":"w_induction_motor_207450","name":"Induction motor","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Type of AC electric motor. Italian physicist and electrical engineer Galileo Ferraris publishes a paper on the induction motor, and Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla gets a US patent on the same device","verdict":"Advance: Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla's 1888 induction motors run without brushes, now consuming about half the world's electricity.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Induction_motor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207450"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_induction_motor_207450"},{"id":"w_flush_toilet_268534","name":"Flush toilet","year":1851,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Toilet that disposes of human excreta by using water to flush it. 1851: George Jennings offers the first public flush toilets, accessible for a penny per visit, and in 1852 receives a UK patent for the single piece, free standing, earthenware, trap plumed, flushing, water-closet.","verdict":"Advance: George Jennings' flushing public toilets at the 1851 Great Exhibition served 827,000 visitors and pushed sanitary plumbing into cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flush_toilet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q268534"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_flush_toilet_268534"},{"id":"w_shower_7863","name":"Shower","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Place in which a person bathes under a spray of water. A curtain rod or traverse rod is a device used to suspend curtains, usually above windows or along the edges of showers, though also wherever curtains might be used. The flat, telescoping curtain rod was invented by Charles W.","verdict":"Advance: Piped hot showers, widespread in 20th-century homes, made frequent bathing cheap, lowering skin and infectious disease.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shower","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_shower_7863"},{"id":"w_lamination_384943","name":"Lamination","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique of fusing layers of material. Formica is a hard durable plastic laminate used for countertops, cupboard doors, and other surfaces which are heat-resistant and easy to clean. Formica was invented in 1913 by Herbert A Faber and Daniel J.","verdict":"Advance: Formica's 1913 layered resin laminates gave durable, cheap surfaces for kitchens and electrical insulation.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lamination","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q384943"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_lamination_384943"},{"id":"w_nut_190977","name":"Nut","year":1918,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of fastener with a threaded hole. A torque wrench is a tool used to precisely apply a specific torque to a fastener such as a nut or bolt. It is usually in the form of a socket wrench with special internal mechanisms. It was invented by Conrad Charles Bahr in 1918.","verdict":"Advance: Standardized threaded nuts and bolts, unified across Britain, the US and Canada in 1948, made fasteners interchangeable worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nut_(hardware)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190977"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_nut_190977"},{"id":"w_food_waste_18919","name":"Garbage disposal unit","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Wastage of food due to discardment, disposal, expiration, or loss. A garbage disposal is a device, usually electrically powered, installed under a kitchen sink between the sink's drain and the trap which shreds food waste into pieces small enough to pass through plumbing.","verdict":"Advance: John Hammes' 1927 in-sink garbage disposal ground food waste for sewers, keeping it out of landfills, though at a water and treatment cost.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Food_loss_and_waste","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18919"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_food_waste_18919"},{"id":"w_resonator_349669","name":"Resonator","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior, that is, it naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called its resonant frequencies, with greater amplitude than at others. A resonator guitar or resophonic guitar is an acoustic guitar whose sound is produced by one or more spun metal cones resonators instead of the wooden sound board (guitar top/face).","verdict":"Advance: Cavity and quartz resonators set precise frequencies, keeping radios, clocks and filters stable.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Resonator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q349669"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_resonator_349669"},{"id":"w_electronic_oscillator_249997","name":"Electronic oscillator","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electronic circuit that produces a repetitive, oscillating electronic signal. American engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong developed the electronic oscillator.","verdict":"Advance: Armstrong's 1912 regenerative oscillator produced continuous radio waves, the heart of transmitters.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electronic_oscillator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electronic_oscillator_249997"},{"id":"w_particle_accelerator_130825","name":"Particle accelerator","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Device to propel charged particles to high speeds. A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator that accelerate charged particles using a high-frequency, alternating voltage. The cyclotron was invented in 1929 by Ernest O. Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley.","verdict":"Advance: Ernest Lawrence's 1931 cyclotron led to accelerators like the LHC, which found the Higgs boson in 2012.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Particle_accelerator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130825"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_particle_accelerator_130825"},{"id":"w_rickenbacker_electro_a_22_614985","name":"Rickenbacker Electro A-22","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of guitar. An electric guitar is a guitar using pickups to convert its metal string vibration into electricity. This is amplified with an instrument amplifier. The output is altered with guitar effects such as reverb or distortion.","verdict":"Advance: Rickenbacker's 1931 Frying Pan lap steel was the first commercially produced electric guitar.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Frying_Pan_(guitar)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q614985"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_rickenbacker_electro_a_22_614985"},{"id":"w_electrical_switch_5320","name":"Electrical switch","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrical component that can break an electrical circuit.","verdict":"Advance: Switches open and close circuits, the simplest control element and the root of all digital logic.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Switch","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5320"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electrical_switch_5320"},{"id":"w_am_broadcasting_1377707","name":"AM broadcasting","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation. In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency.","verdict":"Advance: AM radio broadcasting; mass audiences reached by voice.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AM_broadcasting","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1377707"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_am_broadcasting_1377707"},{"id":"w_magnitude_500062","name":"Magnitude","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Strength of seismic waves of an earthquake. The Richter magnitude scale, or local magnitude M L scale, assigns a number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Richter's 1935 magnitude scale quantified earthquakes, later replaced by moment magnitude.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seismic_magnitude_scales","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q500062"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_magnitude_500062"},{"id":"w_wood_s_glass_2437156","name":"Wood's glass","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Filter allows ultraviolet light to pass. A black light or UV Light is a lamp emitting electromagnetic radiation that is almost exclusively in the soft ultraviolet range, and emits little visible light. The black light was invented by William H. Byler, in 1935.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Wood's UV-pass glass filter made black lights for forensic, mineral and medical fluorescence.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wood's_glass","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2437156"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_wood_s_glass_2437156"},{"id":"w_lambda_calculus_242028","name":"Lambda calculus","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Formal system in mathematical logic. A programming language is a machine-readable artificial language. Programming languages can be used to create programs that specify the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication.","verdict":"Advance: Alonzo Church's 1936 lambda calculus defined computability and inspired functional programming.","dependencies":["w_formal_system_649732"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lambda_calculus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q242028"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lambda_calculus_242028"},{"id":"w_fluorescence_191807","name":"Fluorescence","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light. A compact fluorescent lamp is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lightbulb.","verdict":"Advance: Compact fluorescent lamps (1980s–90s) cut lighting energy by about 75%, a bridge to LEDs.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fluorescence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191807"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fluorescence_191807"},{"id":"w_deformation_193514","name":"Deformation","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration. A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. The strain gauge was invented in 1936 by Edward E.","verdict":"Advance: Strain gauges, from Simmons and Ruge in 1938, measure deformation in bridges and aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deformation_(physics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193514"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_deformation_193514"},{"id":"w_plectrum_181890","name":"Plectrum","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Small flat tool used to pluck or strum a stringed instrument. The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb (either by plucking, slapping, popping, tapping, or thumping), or by using a plectrum.","verdict":"Advance: Picks of quill, horn and now plastic let players strike strings fast and loud; the flat pick shaped rock and bluegrass technique.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plectrum","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181890"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_plectrum_181890"},{"id":"w_photocopier_185369","name":"Photocopier","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Device for reproducing documents. Xerography, which means \"dry writing\" in Greek, is a process of making copies. Xerography makes copies without using ink. In this process, static electricity charges a lighted plate;","verdict":"Advance: Chester Carlson's 1938 dry photocopy, commercialized by Xerox in 1959, made document copying instant and cheap.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photocopier","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185369"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photocopier_185369"},{"id":"w_polytetrafluoroethylene_143252","name":"Polytetrafluoroethylene","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Polymer. In chemistry, polytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications. PTFE is best known by the DuPont brand name Teflon. PTFE was accidentally invented by Roy Plunkett of Kinetic Chemicals in 1938.","verdict":"Advance: Roy Plunkett's accidental 1938 Teflon was used in Manhattan Project seals and later non-stick pans and aerospace wiring.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polytetrafluoroethylene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143252"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polytetrafluoroethylene_143252"},{"id":"w_bin_bag_1197414","name":"Bin bag","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Disposable bag used to contain trash. A twist tie is a metal wire that is encased in a thin strip of paper or plastic and is used to tie the openings of bags, such as garbage bags or bread bags.","verdict":"Advance: Harry Wasylyk's 1950 polyethylene garbage bag (claimed) made waste collection cleaner for cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bin_bag","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1197414"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bin_bag_1197414"},{"id":"w_polyacrylonitrile_145421","name":"Polyacrylonitrile","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Polymer. Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer Polyacrylonitrile with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units.","verdict":"Advance: Polyacrylonitrile, spun as acrylic (Orlon, 1950), is also the main precursor for carbon fibre.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polyacrylonitrile","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q145421"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polyacrylonitrile_145421"},{"id":"w_electric_guitar_78987","name":"Electric guitar","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrified guitar; fretted stringed instrument with a neck and body that uses a pickup to convert the vibration of its strings into electrical signals. A solid body electric guitar, made up of hardwood with a lacquer coating, is an electric guitar that has no hollow internal cavity to accommodate vibration.","verdict":"Advance: George Beauchamp's 1931 \"Frying Pan\" pickup made the guitar loud enough for big bands, and it became the defining sound of rock.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_guitar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q78987"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_electric_guitar_78987"},{"id":"w_proximity_fuze_333133","name":"Proximity fuze","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Fuze that detonates an explosive device. A magnetic proximity fuze is a type of proximity fuze that initiates a detonator in a piece of ordnance such as a land mine, naval mine, depth charge, or shell when the fuse's magnetic equilibrium is upset by a magnetic object such as a…","verdict":"Compete: The radio proximity fuze, mass-produced from 1942, burst shells near their targets, tripling anti-aircraft effectiveness against V-1s and kamikazes.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Proximity_fuze","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333133"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_proximity_fuze_333133"},{"id":"w_astroturf_4593385","name":"AstroTurf","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Brand of artificial turf. Artificial turf, or synthetic turf, is a man-made surface made to look like natural grass. It is most often used in arenas for sports that were originally or are normally played on grass.","verdict":"Advance: Synthetic turf for sports fields.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstroTurf","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_%281946%E2%80%931991%29","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4593385"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_astroturf_4593385"},{"id":"w_visicalc_725401","name":"VisiCalc","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Spreadsheet software. A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper worksheet. It displays multiple cells that together make up a grid consisting of rows and columns, each cell containing either alphanumeric text or numeric values.","verdict":"Advance: Dan Bricklin's VisiCalc (1979), the first spreadsheet, made the Apple II a business tool.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/VisiCalc","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_%281946%E2%80%931991%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_visicalc_725401"},{"id":"w_parallel_computing_232661","name":"Parallel computing","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Programming paradigm in which many calculations or the execution of processes are carried out simultaneously. Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, which utilizes parallel computing to bring new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines Corporation )","verdict":"Advance: Parallel computing, from ILLIAC IV (1970s) to GPUs, divides problems across many processors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parallel_computing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q232661"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_parallel_computing_232661"},{"id":"w_hammer_mill_256752","name":"Hammer mill","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Workshop used to manufacture wrought iron products. The screenless hammer mill, like regular hammer mills, is used to pound grain.","verdict":"Advance: Rotating hammers crush grain, ore and biomass cheaply, a workhorse of feed mills and recycling plants.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_mill","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q256752"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hammer_mill_256752"},{"id":"w_first_class_functions_1344046","name":"First-class functions","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Programming language feature that allows manipulating functions like other values. JavaScript, a scripting language widely used for client-side web development, became the originating dialect of the ECMAScript standard. It is a dynamic, weakly typed, prototype-based language with first-class functions.","verdict":"Advance: First-class functions, from Lisp (1958) to JavaScript, let programs pass behaviour as data.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/First-class_function","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1344046"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_first_class_functions_1344046"},{"id":"w_wheelchair_191931","name":"Wheelchair","year":1655,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Chair with wheels, used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. 1655 - Stephan Farffler was a Nuremberg watchmaker of the seventeenth century whose invention of a manumotive carriage in 1655 is widely considered to have been the first self-propelled wheelchair.","verdict":"Advance: Stephan Farffler's 1655 self-propelled chair and later wheelchairs gave people unable to walk independent mobility.","dependencies":["w_chair_15026"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wheelchair","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191931"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_wheelchair_191931"},{"id":"w_magnetometer_333921","name":"Magnetometer","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Measuring instrument for magnetism. A spin-exchange relaxation-free (SERF) magnetometer achieves very high magnetic field sensitivity by monitoring a high density vapor of alkali metal atoms precessing in a near-zero magnetic field.","verdict":"Advance: Gauss's 1833 magnetometer measured Earth's field; SERF magnetometers now detect brain signals.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333921"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_magnetometer_333921"},{"id":"w_calibre_170417","name":"Calibre","year":1812,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Internal diameter of the barrel of a gun. The Columbiad was a large caliber, smoothbore, muzzle loading cannon able to fire heavy projectiles at both high and low trajectories.","verdict":"Compete: Standard bore diameters let ammunition be mass-produced and shared across guns, a logistics breakthrough from the Columbiad on.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caliber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170417"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_calibre_170417"},{"id":"w_electromagnet_178032","name":"Electromagnet","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. 1824: William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.","verdict":"Advance: William Sturgeon's 1824 iron-core electromagnet lifted 9 lb, leading to relays, motors, MRI and scrap cranes.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electromagnet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electromagnet_178032"},{"id":"w_howe_truss_4420898","name":"Howe truss","year":1844,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Type of truss. A Pratt truss is a specialized design of a trussed bridge whereby the vertical trusses are compressed and the diagonal trusses are in tension.","verdict":"Advance: William Howe's 1840 truss combined timber and iron rods to span rivers for American railways.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Howe_truss","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4420898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_howe_truss_4420898"},{"id":"w_gatling_gun_272975","name":"Gatling gun","year":1861,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1860s multi-barrel rapid-fire gun of Richard Gatling, or its 1880s-1890s variants. The machine gun is typically considered to be a fully automatic firearm, usually designed to fire rifle cartridges in quick succession from an ammunition belt or large-capacity magazine.","verdict":"Compete: Richard Gatling's 1862 crank-operated gun, which he claimed would reduce army sizes, instead began the age of machine-gun firepower.","dependencies":["w_multiple_barrel_firearm_60451"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gatling_gun","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q272975"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_gatling_gun_272975"},{"id":"w_roller_skates_1031639","name":"Roller skates","year":1760,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Shoe or overshoe with wheels. Quad skates are four-wheeled turning roller skates set in two side-by-side pairs. In 1863, James Leonard Plimpton of Medford, Massachusetts, invented the first four-wheeled roller skates arranged in two side-by-side pairs.","verdict":"Advance: John Joseph Merlin's 1760 skates, and James Plimpton's 1863 turning quads, made rolling recreation and roller derby.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Roller_skates","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1031639"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_roller_skates_1031639"},{"id":"w_bulk_cargo_1359395","name":"Grain silo","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Commodity cargo transported unpackaged in large quantities. A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain, see grain elevators, or fermented feed known as silage.","verdict":"Advance: Bulk grain silos and elevators, first built in Buffalo in 1842, cut handling costs, so prairie grain could feed industrial Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bulk_cargo","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1359395"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bulk_cargo_1359395"},{"id":"w_photographic_film_6293","name":"Photographic film","year":1871,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Photosensitive film material used to record photographic or cinematographic images. 1871 – The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Maddox's 1871 gelatin dry plate let photographers develop at leisure, leading to roll film and snapshots.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photographic_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6293"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photographic_film_6293"},{"id":"w_peristaltic_pump_650921","name":"Peristaltic pump","year":1881,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of pump that moves fluid by squeezing a rubber tube. 1881 peristaltic pump","verdict":"Advance: Rollers squeezing a tube moved fluids without contact, the pump now used for dialysis, heart–lung machines and lab dosing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Peristaltic_pump","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q650921"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_peristaltic_pump_650921"},{"id":"w_popcorn_165112","name":"Popcorn","year":1885,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Variety of corn kernel which expands and puffs up on heating. A popcorn machine, also called a popcorn maker, is a device used to pop popcorn.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Cretors' 1885 steam popcorn machine turned an ancient Andean snack into a mass-market street and cinema food.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Popcorn","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165112"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_popcorn_165112"},{"id":"w_mortar_and_pestle_18341850","name":"Mortar and pestle","year":-35000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Equipment consisting of a bowl in which substances are ground using a pestle. 37 kya: Mortar and pestle in Southwest Asia","verdict":"Advance: Stone grinding bowls let foragers crush seeds, pigments and medicines, an early tool for processing food and chemicals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mortar_and_pestle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18341850"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_mortar_and_pestle_18341850"},{"id":"w_neolithic_revolution_180548","name":"Neolithic revolution","year":-8500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Transition from hunter gatherer to settled peoples. 8,500 BC – Neolithic Revolution in the ancient Near East","verdict":"Advance: Farming let populations settle, store surplus and specialize; the root of civilization.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neolithic_Revolution","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180548"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_neolithic_revolution_180548"},{"id":"w_pre_pottery_neolithic_b_897323","name":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","year":-7500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Archaeological culture. 7500 BC – PPNB sites across the Fertile Crescent growing wheat, barley, chickpeas, peas, beans, flax and bitter vetch. Sheep and goat domesticated.","verdict":"Advance: PPNB villages such as Jericho and Çatalhöyük settled the Fertile Crescent's founder crops and herds, the starter kit of farming that later spread across Eurasia.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q897323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pre_pottery_neolithic_b_897323"},{"id":"w_bread_7802","name":"Bread","year":-12400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Baked food made of flour, water and other ingredients. 14.5 kya: Bread in Jordan","verdict":"Advance: Flatbread baked by Natufians at Shubayqa 1 about 14,400 years ago predates farming, which suggests the hunger for cereals helped drive the domestication of wheat.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bread","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bread_7802"},{"id":"w_british_agricultural_revolution_18293488","name":"British Agricultural Revolution","year":1700,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Increase in agricultural production in Britain in mid-17th and late 19th centuries. 1700 – British Agricultural Revolution ends","verdict":"Advance: Norfolk four-course rotation, the Rotherham plough and selective breeding roughly doubled British farm output in about a century, freeing labour for the factories.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/British_Agricultural_Revolution","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18293488"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_british_agricultural_revolution_18293488"},{"id":"w_canning_843389","name":"Canning","year":1809,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of preserving food. 1809 – French confectioner Nicolas Appert invents canning","verdict":"Advance: Nicolas Appert's sealed, heated jars (1809, for a Napoleonic prize) kept food safe for years, and tinned cans soon fed navies, explorers and cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Canning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q843389"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_canning_843389"},{"id":"w_quadratic_equation_41299","name":"Quadratic equation","year":-2100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Polynomial equation in a single variable where the highest exponent of the variable is 2. 2100 BC: Quadratic equations, in the form of problems relating the areas and sides of rectangles, are solved by Babylonians.","verdict":"Advance: Babylonian scribes solved quadratic problems around 2000 BCE, laying the groundwork for algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quadratic_equation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41299"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quadratic_equation_41299"},{"id":"w_papyrus_berlin_6619_3052639","name":"Papyrus Berlin 6619","year":-2000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical papyrus. 2000 BC: Pythagorean triples are first discussed in Babylon and Egypt, and appear on later manuscripts such as the Berlin Papyrus 6619.","verdict":"Advance: Papyrus Berlin 6619 records a pair of simultaneous equations solved by false position, evidence of Egyptian algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Berlin_Papyrus_6619","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3052639"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_papyrus_berlin_6619_3052639"},{"id":"w_compass_and_straightedge_construction_115368","name":"Compass and straightedge construction","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Way of drawing geometric objects using only an idealized compass and straightedge. A geometric construction for the solution of the cubic is sought (doubling the cube problem). It is now well known that the general cubic has no such solution using Euclidean tools.","verdict":"Advance: Euclid's compass-and-straightedge constructions set the rigour of Greek geometry; Wantzel proved trisection impossible in 1837.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Straightedge_and_compass_construction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115368"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_compass_and_straightedge_construction_115368"},{"id":"w_false_position_method_1476057","name":"False position method","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Root-finding algorithm. Algebraic equations are treated in the Chinese mathematics book Jiuzhang suanshu ( The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ), which contains solutions of linear equations solved using the rule of double false position, geometric solut…","verdict":"Advance: The Nine Chapters (c. 200 BCE) solved equations by false position, a method still used in root-finding.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Regula_falsi","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1476057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_false_position_method_1476057"},{"id":"w_indian_mathematics_1279571","name":"Indian mathematics","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematics on the Indian subcontinent. 3rd century BC – Indian texts use the Sanskrit word \" Shunya \" to refer to the concept of \"void\" ( zero ).","verdict":"Advance: Indian mathematicians gave the world the decimal place-value system, zero and early trigonometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Indian_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1279571"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_indian_mathematics_1279571"},{"id":"w_br_hmasphu_asiddh_nta_1290001","name":"Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta","year":628,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Indian mathematics treatise. Brahmagupta writes the Brahmasphuta-siddhanta, where zero is clearly explained, and where the modern place-value Indian numeral system is fully developed.","verdict":"Advance: Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (628) gave rules for arithmetic with zero and negative numbers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Br%C4%81hmasphu%E1%B9%ADasiddh%C4%81nta","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1290001"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_br_hmasphu_asiddh_nta_1290001"},{"id":"w_cubic_equation_203565","name":"Cubic equation","year":895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"A polynomial equation in a single variable where the highest exponent of the variable is 3.. Thabit ibn Qurra: the only surviving fragment of his original work contains a chapter on the solution and properties of cubic equations.","verdict":"Advance: Thabit ibn Qurra and Omar Khayyam solved cubics geometrically before Cardano's algebraic formula.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cubic_equation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203565"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cubic_equation_203565"},{"id":"w_ruffini_s_rule_2704282","name":"Ruffini's rule","year":1804,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Polynomial division computation method. Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1135–1213) writes the Al-Mu'adalat ( Treatise on Equations ), which deals with eight types of cubic equations with positive solutions and five types of cubic equations which may not have positive solutions.","verdict":"Advance: Paolo Ruffini's 1804 synthetic division simplifies polynomial division.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ruffini's_rule","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2704282"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ruffini_s_rule_2704282"},{"id":"w_polynomial_ring_1455652","name":"Polynomial ring","year":1300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ring of polynomials (with one or several variables) with coefficients in a given ring. Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie deals with polynomial algebra, solves quadratic equations, simultaneous equations and equations with up to four unknowns, and numerically solves some quartic, quintic and higher-order polynomial equations.","verdict":"Advance: Zhu Shijie's 1303 Jade Mirror solved polynomial systems in four unknowns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polynomial_ring","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1455652"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_polynomial_ring_1455652"},{"id":"w_mathematical_notation_1140046","name":"Mathematical notation","year":1412,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System of symbolic representations of mathematical objects and ideas. Arab mathematician Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī takes \"the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism.\" He uses \"short Arabic words, or just their initial letters, as mathematical symbols.\"","verdict":"Advance: Al-Qalasadi's 15th-century symbols for algebra helped move mathematics from words to notation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mathematical_notation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1140046"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mathematical_notation_1140046"},{"id":"w_fermat_s_last_theorem_132469","name":"Fermat's Last Theorem","year":1637,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem in number theory that there are no nontrivial integer solutions of xⁿ+yⁿ=zⁿ for integer n>2. c. 1000 – Abu-Mahmud Khujandi first states a special case of Fermat's Last Theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Fermat's 1637 margin claim stood unproven until Andrew Wiles's 1995 proof.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fermat's_Last_Theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132469"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fermat_s_last_theorem_132469"},{"id":"w_de_moivre_s_formula_190556","name":"De Moivre's formula","year":1722,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Theorem. Abraham de Moivre states de Moivre's formula connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers,","verdict":"Advance: De Moivre's formula (1722) linked complex numbers and trigonometry, essential in signal processing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Moivre's_formula","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190556"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_de_moivre_s_formula_190556"},{"id":"w_cramer_s_rule_322666","name":"Cramer's rule","year":1750,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem of solving a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in his treatise Introduction to the analysis of algebraic curves, states Cramer's rule and studies algebraic curves, matrices and determinants.","verdict":"Advance: Gabriel Cramer's 1750 rule solves linear systems with determinants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cramer's_rule","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q322666"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cramer_s_rule_322666"},{"id":"w_fundamental_theorem_of_algebra_192760","name":"Fundamental theorem of algebra","year":1799,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Every polynomial has a real or complex root. Carl Friedrich Gauss proves the fundamental theorem of algebra (every polynomial equation has a solution among the complex numbers),","verdict":"Advance: Gauss's 1799 proof that every polynomial has a complex root completed the foundations of algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fundamental_theorem_of_algebra_192760"},{"id":"w_abel_ruffini_theorem_657482","name":"Abel–Ruffini theorem","year":1799,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem that a generic equation of degree 5 or higher cannot be solved by radicals. Paolo Ruffini partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem that quintic or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula,","verdict":"Advance: Proved the general quintic has no formula in radicals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Abel%E2%80%93Ruffini_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q657482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_abel_ruffini_theorem_657482"},{"id":"w_quaternion_173853","name":"Quaternion","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Noncommutative extension of the real numbers. William Rowan Hamilton discovers quaternions.","verdict":"Advance: Hamilton's 1843 quaternions, carved on Broom Bridge, now rotate objects in 3D graphics and spacecraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quaternion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173853"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quaternion_173853"},{"id":"w_logic_8078","name":"Logic","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Study of correct reasoning. 350 BC – Greece, Aristotle discusses logical reasoning in Organon.","verdict":"Advance: Aristotle's Organon (c. 350 BCE) formalized syllogistic logic, dominant for 2,000 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Logic","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8078"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_logic_8078"},{"id":"w_euler_s_number_82435","name":"Euler's number","year":1618,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical constant; limit of (1 + 1/n)^n as n approaches infinity; transcendental number approximately equal 2.718281828. 1618—John Napier publishes the first references to e in a work on logarithms.","verdict":"Advance: Napier's logarithms (1618) implied e, which Bernoulli and Euler defined as the base of growth and decay.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/E_(mathematical_constant)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82435"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_euler_s_number_82435"},{"id":"w_associative_algebra_744960","name":"Associative algebra","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algebra over a ring such that multiplication is associative.","verdict":"Advance: Noether's abstract algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Associative_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744960"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_associative_algebra_744960"},{"id":"w_hyperbolic_group_81194","name":"Hyperbolic group","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical concept. Mikhail Gromov develops the theory of hyperbolic groups, revolutionizing both infinite group theory and global differential geometry,","verdict":"Advance: Mikhail Gromov's 1987 hyperbolic groups linked geometry and group theory.","dependencies":["w_group_83478"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hyperbolic_group","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81194"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hyperbolic_group_81194"},{"id":"w_ancient_egyptian_multiplication_1346420","name":"Ancient Egyptian multiplication","year":-1700,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Multiplication algorithm. c. 1700–2000 BC – Egyptians develop earliest known algorithms for multiplying two numbers","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian doubling-and-adding multiplication; one of the oldest known algorithms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ancient_Egyptian_multiplication","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1346420"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ancient_egyptian_multiplication_1346420"},{"id":"w_cubic_function_16667694","name":"Cubic function","year":1545,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A polynomial function in a single variable where the highest exponent of the variable is 3. 1545 – Gerolamo Cardano published Cardano's method for finding the roots of a cubic polynomial","verdict":"Advance: Cardano's Ars Magna (1545) published cubic solutions, forcing mathematicians to confront complex numbers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cubic_function","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16667694"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cubic_function_16667694"},{"id":"w_newton_s_method_374195","name":"Newton's method","year":1671,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for finding a zero of a function. 1671 – Newton–Raphson method developed by Isaac Newton","verdict":"Advance: Newton's 1671 root-finding iteration converges quadratically and underlies modern optimization and solvers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Newton's_method","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q374195"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_newton_s_method_374195"},{"id":"w_cooley_tukey_fft_algorithm_5167446","name":"Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fast Fourier Transform algorithm. 1805 – FFT-like algorithm known by Carl Friedrich Gauss","verdict":"Advance: Cooley–Tukey FFT made spectral computing fast; it is inside every modem, phone and scanner.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cooley%E2%80%93Tukey_FFT_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5167446","https://grokipedia.com/page/Fast_Fourier_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623950"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cooley_tukey_fft_algorithm_5167446"},{"id":"w_bor_vka_s_algorithm_1468211","name":"Borůvka's algorithm","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for finding minimum spanning trees by repeatedly finding the shortest edge out of each subtree in a forest and adding all such edges to the forest. 1926 – Borůvka's algorithm","verdict":"Advance: Otakar Borůvka's 1926 minimum spanning tree algorithm planned Moravia's electrical grid efficiently.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bor%C5%AFvka's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1468211"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bor_vka_s_algorithm_1468211"},{"id":"w_primary_decomposition_172298","name":"Primary decomposition","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In algebra, expression of an ideal as the intersection of ideals of a specific type. 1926 – Primary decomposition algorithm presented by Grete Hermann","verdict":"Advance: Ideal decomposition, developed by Noether in 1921 and refined by Krull, broke ideals into primary pieces, which algebraic geometry relies on.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Primary_decomposition","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172298"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_primary_decomposition_172298"},{"id":"w_hartree_fock_method_7879841","name":"Hartree–Fock method","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of approximation for the determination of the wave function and the energy of a quantum many-body system in a stationary state. 1927 – Hartree–Fock method developed for simulating a quantum many-body system in a stationary state.","verdict":"Advance: Hartree and Fock's 1927–30 self-consistent method made molecular quantum chemistry computable.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hartree%E2%80%93Fock_method","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7879841"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hartree_fock_method_7879841"},{"id":"w_delaunay_triangulation_192445","name":"Delaunay triangulation","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Triangulation method named after Boris Delaunay. 1934 – Delaunay triangulation developed by Boris Delaunay","verdict":"Advance: Boris Delaunay's 1934 triangulation is used for meshes in graphics, terrain and finite element models.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Delaunay_triangulation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192445"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_delaunay_triangulation_192445"},{"id":"w_merge_sort_189057","name":"Merge sort","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Worst-case optimal stable divide and conquer comparison sorting algorithm. 1945 – Merge sort developed by John von Neumann","verdict":"Advance: John von Neumann's 1945 merge sort divides and merges in guaranteed O(n log n) time.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Merge_sort","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_merge_sort_189057"},{"id":"w_simplex_algorithm_134164","name":"Simplex algorithm","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Algorithm. Dantzig introduces the simplex algorithm (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).","verdict":"Advance: George Dantzig's simplex method (1947) solves linear programs for logistics, airline scheduling and economics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Simplex_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134164"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_simplex_algorithm_134164"},{"id":"w_hamming_code_853922","name":"Hamming code","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Error-correcting code. 1947 – Richard W. Hamming invents Hamming codes for error detection and correction (to protect patent rights, the result is not published until 1950)","verdict":"Advance: Richard Hamming's 1950 codes corrected errors in memory and are still used in ECC RAM.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hamming_code","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853922"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hamming_code_853922"},{"id":"w_huffman_coding_2647","name":"Huffman coding","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Entropy encoding algorithm used for lossless data compression. 1951 – David A. Huffman invents Huffman encoding, a method of finding optimal prefix codes for lossless data compression","verdict":"Advance: David Huffman's 1952 optimal prefix codes compress data in JPEG, MP3 and ZIP.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Huffman_coding","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2647"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_huffman_coding_2647"},{"id":"w_simulated_annealing_863783","name":"Simulated annealing","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numerical optimization technique for searching for a solution in a space otherwise too large for ordinary search methods to yield results. 1953 – Simulated annealing introduced by Nicholas Metropolis","verdict":"Advance: Simulated annealing (Kirkpatrick et al., 1983) finds near-optimal solutions by mimicking metal cooling.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Simulated_annealing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863783"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_simulated_annealing_863783"},{"id":"w_radix_sort_830223","name":"Radix sort","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Non-comparative sorting algorithm. 1954 – Radix sort computer algorithm developed by Harold H. Seward","verdict":"Advance: Harold Seward's 1954 radix sort sorts integers in linear time without comparisons.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radix_sort","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1887)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_radix_sort_830223"},{"id":"w_box_muller_transform_895514","name":"Box–Muller transform","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Statistical transform. 1964 – Box–Muller transform for fast generation of normally distributed numbers published by George Edward Pelham Box and Mervin Edgar Muller. Independently pre-discovered by Raymond E. A. C. Paley and Norbert Wiener in 1934.","verdict":"Advance: Box and Muller's 1958 transform generates normal random numbers, used in Monte Carlo simulation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q895514"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_box_muller_transform_895514"},{"id":"w_kruskal_s_algorithm_797860","name":"Kruskal's algorithm","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Minimum spanning forest algorithm that greedily adds edges. 1956 – Kruskal's algorithm developed by Joseph Kruskal","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Kruskal's 1956 algorithm builds minimum spanning trees edge by edge.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kruskal's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q797860"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kruskal_s_algorithm_797860"},{"id":"w_ford_fulkerson_algorithm_284695","name":"Ford–Fulkerson algorithm","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm. In network theory, Ford & Fulkerson compute a solution to the maximum flow problem.","verdict":"Advance: Ford and Fulkerson's 1956 max-flow algorithm optimizes transport, network and matching problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ford%E2%80%93Fulkerson_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284695"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ford_fulkerson_algorithm_284695"},{"id":"w_prim_s_algorithm_470813","name":"Prim's algorithm","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for finding the minimum spanning tree for weighted undirected graphs. 1957 – Prim's algorithm developed by Robert Prim","verdict":"Advance: Robert Prim's 1957 algorithm (and Jarník's 1930 original) computes minimum spanning trees for networks.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Prim's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q470813"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_prim_s_algorithm_470813"},{"id":"w_bellman_ford_algorithm_816022","name":"Bellman–Ford algorithm","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for finding single-source shortest paths in graphs, allowing some edge weights to be negative. 1957 – Bellman–Ford algorithm developed by Richard E. Bellman and L. R. Ford, Jr.","verdict":"Advance: Bellman–Ford (1958) finds shortest paths with negative weights, used in distance-vector routing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bellman%E2%80%93Ford_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816022"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bellman_ford_algorithm_816022"},{"id":"w_dijkstra_s_algorithm_8548","name":"Dijkstra's algorithm","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Graph search algorithm. 1959 – Dijkstra's algorithm developed by Edsger Dijkstra","verdict":"Advance: Edsger Dijkstra's 1959 shortest-path algorithm powers GPS routing and internet protocols.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dijkstra's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8548"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dijkstra_s_algorithm_8548"},{"id":"w_shellsort_848955","name":"Shellsort","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"In-place comparison sorting algorithm invented by D. Shell. 1959 – Shell sort developed by Donald L. Shell","verdict":"Advance: Donald Shell's 1959 sort improved insertion sort with diminishing gaps.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shellsort","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_shellsort_848955"},{"id":"w_de_casteljau_s_algorithm_1179419","name":"De Casteljau's algorithm","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Recursive method to evaluate polynomials in Bernstein form, used to work with Bézier curves. 1959 – De Casteljau's algorithm developed by Paul de Casteljau","verdict":"Advance: Paul de Casteljau's 1959 algorithm evaluates Bézier curves, used in fonts and car-body design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Casteljau's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1179419"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_de_casteljau_s_algorithm_1179419"},{"id":"w_qr_decomposition_653242","name":"QR decomposition","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Matrix decomposition. 1959 – QR factorization algorithm developed independently by John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya","verdict":"Advance: Francis and Kublanovskaya's QR algorithm (1959–61) computes eigenvalues, one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/QR_decomposition","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653242"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_qr_decomposition_653242"},{"id":"w_powerset_construction_2106494","name":"Powerset construction","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method for converting a nondeterministic finite automaton into a deterministic one. 1959 – Rabin–Scott powerset construction for converting NFA into DFA published by Michael O. Rabin and Dana Scott","verdict":"Advance: Rabin and Scott's 1959 powerset construction converts nondeterministic automata to deterministic ones, used in regex engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Powerset_construction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2106494"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_powerset_construction_2106494"},{"id":"w_karatsuba_algorithm_629940","name":"Karatsuba algorithm","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for integer multiplication. 1960 – Karatsuba multiplication","verdict":"Advance: Anatoly Karatsuba's 1960 multiplication beat the quadratic time Kolmogorov assumed was optimal.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Karatsuba_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629940"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_karatsuba_algorithm_629940"},{"id":"w_cyclic_redundancy_check_245471","name":"Cyclic redundancy check","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of hash function used to detect errors in data storage or transmission. 1961 – CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) invented by W. Wesley Peterson","verdict":"Advance: W. Wesley Peterson's 1961 CRC detects transmission errors in Ethernet, disks and ZIP files.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cyclic_redundancy_check","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cyclic_redundancy_check_245471"},{"id":"w_avl_tree_300159","name":"AVL tree","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"One kind of self-balancing binary search tree. 1962 – AVL trees","verdict":"Advance: First self-balancing search tree.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AVL_tree","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300159"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_avl_tree_300159"},{"id":"w_quicksort_486598","name":"Quicksort","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Divide and conquer sorting algorithm. 1960 – Tony Hoare invents the quicksort algorithm.","verdict":"Advance: Tony Hoare's 1959 quicksort sorts in place in average O(n log n), the default in most libraries.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quicksort","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486598"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quicksort_486598"},{"id":"w_bresenham_s_line_algorithm_549860","name":"Bresenham's line algorithm","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for rasterizing a straight line. 1962 – Bresenham's line algorithm developed by Jack E. Bresenham","verdict":"Advance: Jack Bresenham's 1962 line algorithm draws lines with integer arithmetic, built into graphics hardware.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bresenham's_line_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q549860"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bresenham_s_line_algorithm_549860"},{"id":"w_stable_marriage_problem_620702","name":"Stable marriage problem","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical problem of finding a stable matching between two equally sized sets of elements given an ordering of preferences for each element. 1962 – Gale–Shapley 'stable-marriage' algorithm developed by David Gale and Lloyd Shapley","verdict":"Advance: Gale and Shapley's 1962 stable matching assigns medical residents and school places, earning a 2012 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_matching_problem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620702"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_stable_marriage_problem_620702"},{"id":"w_heapsort_474095","name":"Heapsort","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Worst-case optimal in-place comparison sorting algorithm based on the heap data structure. 1964 – Heapsort developed by J. W. J. Williams","verdict":"Advance: J. W. J. Williams's 1964 heapsort guarantees O(n log n) sorting in place.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heapsort","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q474095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_heapsort_474095"},{"id":"w_multigrid_method_1413101","name":"Multigrid method","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of solving system of linear algebrayes equations based on the use of a sequence of decreasing grids and operator. 1964 – multigrid methods first proposed by R. P. Fedorenko","verdict":"Advance: Fedorenko's multigrid methods (1964) solve PDEs in linear time, accelerating simulations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multigrid_method","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1413101"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_multigrid_method_1413101"},{"id":"w_levenshtein_distance_496939","name":"Levenshtein distance","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer science metric for string similarity. 1965 – Levenshtein distance developed by Vladimir Levenshtein","verdict":"Advance: Vladimir Levenshtein's 1965 edit distance drives spell-checkers and DNA comparison.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Levenshtein_distance","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q496939"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_levenshtein_distance_496939"},{"id":"w_cyk_algorithm_954821","name":"CYK algorithm","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Parsing algorithm for context-free grammars. 1965 – Cocke–Younger–Kasami (CYK) algorithm independently developed by Tadao Kasami","verdict":"Advance: The CYK algorithm (1965) parses context-free grammars, used in computational linguistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CYK_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q954821"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cyk_algorithm_954821"},{"id":"w_lr_parser_1756442","name":"LR parser","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of parser. 1965 – LR parsers invented by Donald Knuth","verdict":"Advance: Donald Knuth's 1965 LR parsing underlies most programming-language compilers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LR_parser","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1756442"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lr_parser_1756442"},{"id":"w_viterbi_algorithm_83886","name":"Viterbi algorithm","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm. 1967 – Viterbi algorithm proposed by Andrew Viterbi","verdict":"Advance: Andrew Viterbi's 1967 algorithm decodes convolutional codes in mobile phones and speech recognition.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Viterbi_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83886"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_viterbi_algorithm_83886"},{"id":"w_a_search_algorithm_277680","name":"A* search algorithm","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm used for pathfinding and graph traversal. 1968 – A* graph search algorithm described by Peter Hart, Nils Nilsson, and Bertram Raphael","verdict":"Advance: The standard pathfinding algorithm in robotics, maps and games.","dependencies":["w_dijkstra_s_algorithm_8548"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/A%2A_search_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q277680"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_a_search_algorithm_277680"},{"id":"w_risch_algorithm_1382512","name":"Risch algorithm","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm used to compute integrals of functions, especially used in computer algebra systems. 1968 – Risch algorithm for indefinite integration developed by Robert Henry Risch","verdict":"Advance: Robert Risch's 1968 algorithm decides whether elementary functions have elementary integrals, the core of symbolic integration.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Risch_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1382512"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_risch_algorithm_1382512"},{"id":"w_strassen_algorithm_728507","name":"Strassen algorithm","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First subcubic matrix multiplication algorithm. 1969 – Strassen algorithm for matrix multiplication developed by Volker Strassen","verdict":"Advance: Volker Strassen's 1969 matrix multiplication broke the cubic barrier, starting the race for faster algorithms.","dependencies":["w_karatsuba_algorithm_629940"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Strassen_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q728507"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_strassen_algorithm_728507"},{"id":"w_dinic_s_algorithm_730933","name":"Dinic's algorithm","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for computing the maximal flow of a network. 1970 – Dinic's algorithm for computing maximum flow in a flow network by Yefim (Chaim) A. Dinitz","verdict":"Advance: Yefim Dinitz's 1970 max-flow algorithm uses blocking flows, faster than Ford–Fulkerson.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dinic's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q730933"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dinic_s_algorithm_730933"},{"id":"w_broyden_fletcher_goldfarb_shanno_algorit_2877013","name":"Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno algorithm","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Optimization method. 1970 – BFGS method of the quasi-Newton class","verdict":"Advance: The BFGS quasi-Newton method (1970) optimizes smooth functions in statistics and machine learning.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Broyden%E2%80%93Fletcher%E2%80%93Goldfarb%E2%80%93Shanno_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2877013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_broyden_fletcher_goldfarb_shanno_algorit_2877013"},{"id":"w_needleman_wunsch_algorithm_583546","name":"Needleman–Wunsch algorithm","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1970 – Needleman–Wunsch algorithm published by Saul B. Needleman and Christian D. Wunsch","verdict":"Advance: Needleman and Wunsch's 1970 dynamic programming aligns protein sequences, founding bioinformatics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Needleman%E2%80%93Wunsch_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q583546"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_needleman_wunsch_algorithm_583546"},{"id":"w_edmonds_karp_algorithm_1302658","name":"Edmonds–Karp algorithm","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1972 – Edmonds–Karp algorithm published by Jack Edmonds and Richard Karp, essentially identical to Dinic's algorithm from 1970","verdict":"Advance: Edmonds and Karp's 1972 BFS refinement of Ford–Fulkerson gives polynomial-time max flow.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Edmonds%E2%80%93Karp_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1302658"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_edmonds_karp_algorithm_1302658"},{"id":"w_graham_scan_914780","name":"Graham scan","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for finding the convex hull of a set of points in the plane. 1972 – Graham scan developed by Ronald Graham","verdict":"Advance: Ronald Graham's 1972 scan computes convex hulls in O(n log n), used in graphics and robotics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graham_scan","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q914780"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_graham_scan_914780"},{"id":"w_red_black_tree_506496","name":"Red–black tree","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Self-balancing binary search tree data structure. 1972 – Red–black trees and B-trees discovered","verdict":"Advance: Bayer's 1972 B-trees and red–black trees keep databases and file systems balanced and fast.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Red%E2%80%93black_tree","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506496"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_red_black_tree_506496"},{"id":"w_rsa_cryptosystem_181551","name":"RSA cryptosystem","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Algorithm for public-key cryptography. 1973 – RSA encryption algorithm discovered by Clifford Cocks","verdict":"Advance: Rivest, Shamir and Adleman published RSA in 1977; Clifford Cocks had found it secretly at GCHQ in 1973.","dependencies":["w_public_key_cryptography_201339"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RSA_cryptosystem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181551"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1977)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rsa_cryptosystem_181551"},{"id":"w_gift_wrapping_algorithm_2990379","name":"Gift wrapping algorithm","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for computing convex hulls by tracing the boundary of the hull. 1973 – Jarvis march algorithm developed by R. A. Jarvis","verdict":"Advance: Ray Jarvis's 1973 gift-wrapping algorithm finds convex hulls point by point.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gift_wrapping_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2990379"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_gift_wrapping_algorithm_2990379"},{"id":"w_hopcroft_karp_algorithm_1516988","name":"Hopcroft–Karp algorithm","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm for maximum cardinality matching in bipartite graphs. 1973 – Hopcroft–Karp algorithm developed by John Hopcroft and Richard Karp","verdict":"Advance: Hopcroft and Karp's 1973 algorithm finds maximum bipartite matchings for assignment problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hopcroft%E2%80%93Karp_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1516988"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hopcroft_karp_algorithm_1516988"},{"id":"w_pollard_s_p_1_algorithm_1937853","name":"Pollard's p − 1 algorithm","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Special-purpose algorithm for factoring integers. 1974 – Pollard's p − 1 algorithm developed by John Pollard","verdict":"Advance: John Pollard's p − 1 method (1974) factors numbers with smooth predecessors, a test for key strength.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pollard's_p_%E2%88%92_1_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1937853"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pollard_s_p_1_algorithm_1937853"},{"id":"w_quadtree_934791","name":"Quadtree","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly four children. 1974 – Quadtree developed by Raphael Finkel and J.L. Bentley","verdict":"Advance: Finkel and Bentley's 1974 quadtree partitions space for maps, images and collision detection.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quadtree","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q934791"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quadtree_934791"},{"id":"w_genetic_algorithm_187787","name":"Genetic algorithm","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Competitive algorithm for searching a problem space. 1975 – Genetic algorithms popularized by John Holland","verdict":"Advance: John Holland's 1975 genetic algorithms evolve solutions by selection and crossover, used in engineering design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genetic_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_genetic_algorithm_187787"},{"id":"w_pollard_s_rho_algorithm_946489","name":"Pollard's rho algorithm","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1975 – Pollard's rho algorithm developed by John Pollard","verdict":"Advance: Pollard's 1975 rho method factors integers using random walks and cycle detection.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pollard's_rho_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q946489"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pollard_s_rho_algorithm_946489"},{"id":"w_aho_corasick_algorithm_402342","name":"Aho–Corasick algorithm","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"String searching algorithm. 1975 – Aho–Corasick string matching algorithm developed by Alfred V. Aho and Margaret J. Corasick","verdict":"Advance: Fast multi-pattern string search; still used in intrusion detection.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aho%E2%80%93Corasick_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q402342"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_aho_corasick_algorithm_402342"},{"id":"w_gauss_legendre_algorithm_2448949","name":"Gauss–Legendre algorithm","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quadratically converging iterative algorithm for computing π. 1976 – Salamin–Brent algorithm independently discovered by Eugene Salamin and Richard Brent","verdict":"Advance: Salamin and Brent's 1976 algorithm doubles π's correct digits each iteration.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gauss%E2%80%93Legendre_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2448949"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_gauss_legendre_algorithm_2448949"},{"id":"w_knuth_morris_pratt_algorithm_45285","name":"Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"String searching algorithm. 1976 – Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm developed by Donald Knuth and Vaughan Pratt and independently by J. H. Morris","verdict":"Advance: Knuth, Morris and Pratt's 1977 algorithm searches strings in linear time.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Knuth%E2%80%93Morris%E2%80%93Pratt_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45285"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1970)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_knuth_morris_pratt_algorithm_45285"},{"id":"w_boyer_moore_string_search_algorithm_895984","name":"Boyer–Moore string search algorithm","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"String searching algorithm. 1977 – Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm for searching the occurrence of a string into another string.","verdict":"Advance: Boyer and Moore's 1977 algorithm searches text by skipping ahead, used in grep.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_string-search_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q895984"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_boyer_moore_string_search_algorithm_895984"},{"id":"w_lz77_and_lz78_22670963","name":"LZ77 and LZ78","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lossless data compression algorithms. 1977 – LZ77 algorithm developed by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv","verdict":"Advance: Lempel and Ziv's LZ77 and LZ78 (1977–78) underpin ZIP, PNG and gzip compression.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LZ77_and_LZ78","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22670963"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lz77_and_lz78_22670963"},{"id":"w_ellipsoid_method_378574","name":"Ellipsoid method","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Iterative method for minimizing convex functions. 1979 – Khachiyan's ellipsoid method developed by Leonid Khachiyan","verdict":"Advance: Leonid Khachiyan's 1979 ellipsoid method proved linear programming solvable in polynomial time.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ellipsoid_method","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378574"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ellipsoid_method_378574"},{"id":"w_id3_algorithm_1653378","name":"ID3 algorithm","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decision tree algorithm. 1979 – ID3 decision tree algorithm developed by Ross Quinlan","verdict":"Advance: Ross Quinlan's 1979 ID3 builds decision trees using information gain.","dependencies":[],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ID3_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1653378"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_id3_algorithm_1653378"},{"id":"w_cycle_detection_60614789","name":"Cycle detection","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithmic problem. 1980 – Brent's Algorithm for cycle detection Richard P. Brendt","verdict":"Advance: Richard Brent's 1980 cycle detection improved Floyd's method, used in factoring.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cycle_detection","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60614789"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cycle_detection_60614789"},{"id":"w_quadratic_sieve_1151850","name":"Quadratic sieve","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Integer factorization algorithm. 1981 – Quadratic sieve developed by Carl Pomerance","verdict":"Advance: Carl Pomerance's 1981 quadratic sieve factored RSA-129 in 1994.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quadratic_sieve","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1151850"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quadratic_sieve_1151850"},{"id":"w_smith_waterman_algorithm_1683352","name":"Smith–Waterman algorithm","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm performs local sequence alignment. 1981 – Smith–Waterman algorithm developed by Temple F. Smith and Michael S. Waterman","verdict":"Advance: Smith and Waterman's 1981 algorithm finds local alignments in DNA, the basis of BLAST.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Smith%E2%80%93Waterman_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1683352"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_smith_waterman_algorithm_1683352"},{"id":"w_decision_tree_learning_16766476","name":"Decision tree learning","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm that recursively splits data on attributes to build a tree for classification or regression. 1983 – Classification and regression tree (CART) algorithm developed by Leo Breiman, et al.","verdict":"Advance: Breiman's CART (1984) builds decision trees for classification and regression, now embedded in random forests.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Decision_tree_learning","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16766476"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_decision_tree_learning_16766476"},{"id":"w_lempel_ziv_welch_2681","name":"Lempel–Ziv–Welch","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Universal lossless data compression algorithm. 1984 – LZW algorithm developed from LZ78 by Terry Welch","verdict":"Advance: Terry Welch's 1984 LZW compression was used in GIF and early modems.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Welch","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2681"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lempel_ziv_welch_2681"},{"id":"w_karmarkar_s_algorithm_2246305","name":"Karmarkar's algorithm","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Linear programing method. 1984 – Karmarkar's interior-point algorithm developed by Narendra Karmarkar","verdict":"Advance: Narendra Karmarkar's 1984 interior-point method solved linear programs much faster.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Karmarkar's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2246305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_karmarkar_s_algorithm_2246305"},{"id":"w_splay_tree_80729","name":"Splay tree","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Self-adjusting binary search tree with the additional property that recently accessed elements are quick to access again. 1985 – Splay trees discovered by Sleator and Tarjan","verdict":"Advance: Sleator and Tarjan's 1985 splay trees move accessed items to the root, speeding up repeated lookups.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Splay_tree","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80729"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_splay_tree_80729"},{"id":"w_blum_blum_shub_886155","name":"Blum Blum Shub","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pseudorandom number generator. 1986 – Blum Blum Shub proposed by L. Blum, M. Blum, and M. Shub","verdict":"Advance: The Blum Blum Shub generator (1986) is provably secure if factoring is hard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blum_Blum_Shub","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q886155"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_blum_blum_shub_886155"},{"id":"w_push_relabel_maximum_flow_algorithm_583889","name":"Push–relabel maximum flow algorithm","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1986 – Push relabel maximum flow algorithm by Andrew Goldberg and Robert Tarjan","verdict":"Advance: Goldberg and Tarjan's 1986 push–relabel algorithm computes maximum flow quickly in practice.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Push%E2%80%93relabel_maximum_flow_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q583889"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_push_relabel_maximum_flow_algorithm_583889"},{"id":"w_barnes_hut_simulation_808453","name":"Barnes–Hut simulation","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Approximation algorithm for performing an n-body simulation. 1986 – Barnes–Hut tree method developed by Josh Barnes and Piet Hut for fast approximate simulation of n-body problems","verdict":"Advance: Barnes and Hut's 1986 tree method cut n-body simulations to O(n log n), enabling galaxy simulations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Barnes%E2%80%93Hut_simulation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808453"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_barnes_hut_simulation_808453"},{"id":"w_special_number_field_sieve_655079","name":"Special number field sieve","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Integer factorization algorithm. 1988 – Special number field sieve developed by John Pollard","verdict":"Advance: Pollard's 1988 special number field sieve factored numbers of special form, such as Fermat numbers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_number_field_sieve","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q655079"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_special_number_field_sieve_655079"},{"id":"w_paxos_987969","name":"Paxos","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of protocols for solving consensus in a network of unreliable processors. 1989 – Paxos protocol developed by Leslie Lamport","verdict":"Advance: Leslie Lamport's Paxos (1989) keeps distributed databases consistent despite failures.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Paxos_(computer_science)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q987969"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_paxos_987969"},{"id":"w_skip_list_2005893","name":"Skip list","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Data structure that allows fast search within an ordered sequence of elements. 1989 – Skip list discovered by William Pugh","verdict":"Advance: William Pugh's 1989 skip lists provide balanced-tree speed with simple randomized linked lists.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Skip_list","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2005893"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_skip_list_2005893"},{"id":"w_general_number_field_sieve_140770","name":"General number field sieve","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Integer factorization algorithm. 1990 – General number field sieve developed from SNFS by Carl Pomerance, Joe Buhler, Hendrik Lenstra, and Leonard Adleman","verdict":"Advance: The general number field sieve (1990s) is the fastest known way to factor large numbers, setting RSA key sizes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_number_field_sieve","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q140770"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_general_number_field_sieve_140770"},{"id":"w_matrix_multiplication_algorithm_17082383","name":"Matrix multiplication algorithm","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm to multiply matrices. 1990 – Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm developed by Don Coppersmith and Shmuel Winograd","verdict":"Advance: Coppersmith and Winograd's 1990 algorithm lowered the matrix-multiplication exponent to 2.376.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Matrix_multiplication_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17082383"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_matrix_multiplication_algorithm_17082383"},{"id":"w_blast_286820","name":"BLAST","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bioinformatics software. 1990 – BLAST algorithm developed by Stephen Altschul, Warren Gish, Webb Miller, Eugene Myers, and David J. 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a foundation of data mining.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apriori_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q513511"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_apriori_algorithm_513511"},{"id":"w_karger_s_algorithm_4924414","name":"Karger's algorithm","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Randomized algorithm for minimum cuts. 1993 – Karger's algorithm to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph by David Karger","verdict":"Advance: David Karger's 1993 randomized contraction finds minimum cuts simply.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Karger's_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4924414"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_karger_s_algorithm_4924414"},{"id":"w_burrows_wheeler_transform_2806","name":"Burrows–Wheeler transform","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm used in data compression techniques. 1994 – Burrows–Wheeler transform developed by Michael Burrows and David Wheeler","verdict":"Advance: Burrows and Wheeler's 1994 transform underlies bzip2 and DNA sequence aligners.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Burrows%E2%80%93Wheeler_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2806"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_burrows_wheeler_transform_2806"},{"id":"w_bootstrap_aggregating_799897","name":"Bootstrap aggregating","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ensemble method within machine learning. 1994 – Bootstrap aggregating (bagging) developed by Leo Breiman","verdict":"Advance: Leo Breiman's 1994 bagging averages bootstrap models to reduce variance, leading to random forests.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bootstrap_aggregating","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q799897"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bootstrap_aggregating_799897"},{"id":"w_adaboost_2823869","name":"AdaBoost","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Boosting algorithm. 1995 – AdaBoost algorithm, the first practical boosting algorithm, was introduced by Yoav Freund and Robert Schapire","verdict":"Advance: First practical boosting algorithm; weak learners combined into strong ones.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AdaBoost","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2823869"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_adaboost_2823869"},{"id":"w_support_vector_machine_282453","name":"Support vector machine","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set of methods for supervised statistical learning. Work on Machine learning shifts from a knowledge-driven approach to a data-driven approach. 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ratios in 7-Zip and xz archives.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZMA","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2733"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lempel_ziv_markov_chain_algorithm_2733"},{"id":"w_viola_jones_object_detection_framework_2493877","name":"Viola–Jones object detection framework","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Machine learning algorithm. 2001 – Viola–Jones algorithm for real-time face detection was developed by Paul Viola and Michael Jones.","verdict":"Advance: Viola and Jones's 2001 cascade detected faces in real time, bringing face detection to cameras.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Viola%E2%80%93Jones_object_detection_framework","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2493877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_viola_jones_object_detection_framework_2493877"},{"id":"w_distributed_hash_table_863506","name":"Distributed hash table","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decentralized distributed system that provides a lookup service similar to a hash table. 2001 – DHT (Distributed hash table) is invented by multiple people from academia and application systems","verdict":"Advance: Distributed hash tables like Chord and Kademlia (2001) locate data among peers without central servers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Distributed_hash_table","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863506"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_distributed_hash_table_863506"},{"id":"w_bittorrent_133862","name":"BitTorrent","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Peer-to-peer file sharing protocol. 2001 – BitTorrent a first fully decentralized peer-to-peer file distribution system is published","verdict":"Advance: Bram Cohen's BitTorrent (2001) spread large files by swarming, at one point carrying a third of internet traffic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BitTorrent","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133862"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bittorrent_133862"},{"id":"w_aks_primality_test_294284","name":"AKS primality test","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Primality test. 2002 – AKS primality test developed by Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena","verdict":"Advance: Proved primality testing is polynomial-time; a landmark in complexity theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AKS_primality_test","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294284"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_aks_primality_test_294284"},{"id":"w_girvan_newman_algorithm_5564851","name":"Girvan–Newman algorithm","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Community detection algorithm. 2002 – Girvan–Newman algorithm to detect communities in complex systems","verdict":"Advance: Girvan and Newman's 2002 algorithm finds communities in networks, used in sociology and biology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Girvan%E2%80%93Newman_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5564851"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_girvan_newman_algorithm_5564851"},{"id":"w_raft_17100313","name":"Raft","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Consensus algorithm. 2013 – Raft consensus protocol published by Diego Ongaro and John Ousterhout","verdict":"Advance: Diego Ongaro and John Ousterhout's 2014 Raft made consensus understandable, used in etcd and Consul.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Raft_(algorithm)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17100313"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_raft_17100313"},{"id":"w_bacitracin_12887800","name":"Bacitracin","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mixture of related cyclic peptides. 1945 – Bacitracin","verdict":"Advance: A topical antibiotic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bacitracin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12887800"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bacitracin_12887800"},{"id":"w_colistin_418946","name":"Colistin","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1947 – Polymyxin E","verdict":"Advance: Polymyxin E, isolated in Japan in 1949, fell out of use due to kidney toxicity, then returned as a last line against multidrug-resistant bacteria.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Colistin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418946"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_colistin_418946"},{"id":"w_neomycin_423098","name":"Neomycin","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Antibiotic, mixture of chemical. 1949 – neomycin","verdict":"Advance: Waksman and Lechevalier's 1949 neomycin became a staple of topical antibiotic creams and bowel preparation for surgery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neomycin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q423098"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_neomycin_423098"},{"id":"w_oxytetracycline_411646","name":"Oxytetracycline","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Second of the broad-spectrum tetracycline group of antibiotics to be discovered. 1950 – oxytetracycline","verdict":"Advance: Pfizer's soil-screened Terramycin (1950) broadened tetracycline therapy and turned Pfizer into a drug discoverer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oxytetracycline","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q411646"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_oxytetracycline_411646"},{"id":"w_penicillin_g_procaine_3435660","name":"Penicillin G procaine","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1950 – penicillin G procaine","verdict":"Advance: Penicillin bound to procaine released slowly from one injection, so a single shot could cure syphilis in mass campaigns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Procaine_benzylpenicillin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3435660"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_penicillin_g_procaine_3435660"},{"id":"w_virginiamycin_group_3560696","name":"Virginiamycin group","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Group of antibiotics. 1959 – virginiamycin","verdict":"Advance: The streptogramin antibiotics, isolated in 1955 (claimed), work synergistically and found niche use against resistant gram-positive infections.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginiamycin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560696"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_virginiamycin_group_3560696"},{"id":"w_gentamicin_422482","name":"Gentamicin","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pharmaceutic extract of Micromonospora purpurea. 1964 – gentamicin","verdict":"Advance: Gentamicin, from Schering's 1963 soil discovery, became a frontline drug against deadly gram-negative hospital infections.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gentamicin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gentamicin_422482"},{"id":"w_pristinamycin_423412","name":"Pristinamycin","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mixture of chemical compounds. 1972 – pristinamycin","verdict":"Advance: Pristinamycin, a French oral streptogramin, remains a cheap treatment for resistant staph infections.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pristinamycin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q423412"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pristinamycin_423412"},{"id":"w_amoxicillin_clavulanic_acid_2870929","name":"Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Combination drug. 1981 – co-amoxiclav ( amoxicillin / clavulanic acid )","verdict":"Advance: Beta-lactamase inhibitor rescued amoxicillin from resistant bacteria.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amoxicillin%2Fclavulanic_acid","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_antibiotics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2870929"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_amoxicillin_clavulanic_acid_2870929"},{"id":"w_expectation_200125","name":"Expectation","year":1654,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Long-run average value of a random variable.","verdict":"Advance: Huygens's 1657 expectation defined fair prices for games, the basis of insurance and decision theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Expected_value","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200125"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_expectation_200125"},{"id":"w_stepped_reckoner_1968697","name":"Stepped Reckoner","year":1672,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Digital mechanical calculator. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner to do multiplication and division.","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner (1673) multiplied with his stepped drum, used in calculators for 300 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stepped_reckoner","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1968697"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_stepped_reckoner_1968697"},{"id":"w_chain_rule_207455","name":"Chain rule","year":1676,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of differentiating composed functions. Leibniz derived the chain rule. The rule is used by AI to train neural networks, for example the backpropagation algorithm uses the chain rule.","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz's chain rule (1676) is used in backpropagation to train every neural network.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chain_rule","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207455"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chain_rule_207455"},{"id":"w_alphabet_of_human_thought_3893330","name":"Alphabet of human thought","year":1679,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Hypothetical language created by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Leibniz developed a universal calculus of reasoning ( alphabet of human thought ) by which arguments could be decided mechanically.","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz's dream of a calculus of reasoning; a seed of symbolic logic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alphabet_of_human_thought","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3893330"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_alphabet_of_human_thought_3893330"},{"id":"w_utility_466707","name":"Utility","year":1738,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Concept in economics & game theory: a relative measure of happiness or satisfaction. Daniel Bernoulli introduces the concept of \" utility \", a generalization of probability, the basis of economics and decision theory, and the mathematical foundation for the way AI represents the \"goals\" of intelligent agents.","verdict":"Advance: Daniel Bernoulli's 1738 diminishing marginal utility solved the St. Petersburg paradox and became the core of economics and decision theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Utility","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466707"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_utility_466707"},{"id":"w_inductive_reasoning_484511","name":"Inductive reasoning","year":1739,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of reasoning in which a body of observations is synthesized to hypothesize a general principle. David Hume described induction, the logical method of learning generalities from examples.","verdict":"Advance: David Hume's problem of induction (1739) showed that experience cannot prove the future, prompting the probabilistic and falsificationist foundations of modern science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inductive_reasoning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q484511"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_inductive_reasoning_484511"},{"id":"w_artificial_neural_network_192776","name":"Artificial neural network","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Computational model used in machine learning, based on connected, hierarchical functions. The simplest kind of artificial neural network is the linear network. It has been known for over two centuries as the method of least squares or linear regression.","verdict":"Advance: McCulloch–Pitts artificial neural network; ancestor of today's AI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neural_network_(machine_learning)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_artificial_neural_network_192776"},{"id":"w_el_ajedrecista_386063","name":"El Ajedrecista","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First true automaton able to play chess. Leonardo Torres Quevedo built an automaton for chess endgames, El Ajedrecista. He was called \"the 20th century's first AI pioneer\".","verdict":"Advance: Torres Quevedo's El Ajedrecista (1912) played king-and-rook endgames, the first automatic chess machine.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/El_Ajedrecista","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q386063"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_el_ajedrecista_386063"},{"id":"w_decision_problem_3262192","name":"Decision problem","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Yes/no problem in computer science. Alonzo Church extended Gödel's proof and showed that the decision problem of computer science does not have a general solution. He developed the Lambda calculus, which will eventually be fundamental to the theory of computer languages.","verdict":"Advance: Church and Turing showed in 1936 that the decision problem is unsolvable, defining the limits of computation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Decision_problem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3262192"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_decision_problem_3262192"},{"id":"w_nimatron_26215055","name":"Nimatron","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First computer game. Edward Condon displayed Nimatron, a digital machine that played Nim perfectly.","verdict":"Advance: Edward Condon's 1940 Nimatron played Nim at the World's Fair, an early game-playing computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nimatron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26215055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nimatron_26215055"},{"id":"w_connectionism_203790","name":"Connectionism","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Approach in cognitive science that hopes to explain mental phenomena using artificial neural networks. Alan Turing produces the \"Intelligent Machinery\" report, regarded as the first manifesto of Artificial Intelligence.","verdict":"Advance: Connectionism, from Turing's 1948 unorganized machines to neural networks, models intelligence as networks of simple units.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Connectionism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203790"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_connectionism_203790"},{"id":"w_hebbian_rule_1277874","name":"Hebbian rule","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Neuroscientific theory that an increase in synaptic efficacy arises from a presynaptic cell’s repeated and persistent stimulation of a postsynaptic cell. Donald O. Hebb develops Hebbian theory, a possible algorithm for learning in neural networks.","verdict":"Advance: Donald Hebb's 1949 rule, \"cells that fire together wire together\", inspired neural network learning.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hebbian_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1277874"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hebbian_rule_1277874"},{"id":"w_ferranti_mark_1_675128","name":"Ferranti Mark 1","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"One of the world's first commercially available general-purpose digital computers. UK The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer. The Mark 1 is a commercial version of the Manchester Mark 1 machine from the University of Manchester.","verdict":"Advance: The Ferranti Mark 1 (1951) was the first commercial general-purpose computer and played the first computer music.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ferranti_Mark_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q675128"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ferranti_mark_1_675128"},{"id":"w_general_problem_solver_1387212","name":"General Problem Solver","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer program created in 1959. The General Problem Solver (GPS) was created by Newell, Shaw and Simon while at CMU.","verdict":"Advance: Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver (1959) used means-ends analysis to solve formalized problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_Problem_Solver","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1387212"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_general_problem_solver_1387212"},{"id":"w_analogy_185816","name":"Analogy","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Inference or argument from one particular to another particular. Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests.","verdict":"Advance: Evans's ANALOGY program; early AI for geometric reasoning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Analogy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185816"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_analogy_185816"},{"id":"w_semantic_network_1045785","name":"Semantic network","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Directed graph structure with labeled edges serving to encode and represent knowledge, whether knowledge of definitions or assertions. Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology, now CMU) demonstrates semantic nets.","verdict":"Advance: Semantic networks (Quillian, 1966) represent knowledge as linked concepts, prefiguring knowledge graphs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Semantic_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1045785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_semantic_network_1045785"},{"id":"w_stochastic_gradient_descent_7617819","name":"Stochastic gradient descent","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Gradient descent method used for the minimization of an objective function. Shun'ichi Amari becomes the first to use stochastic gradient descent for deep learning in multilayer perceptrons.","verdict":"Advance: Shun'ichi Amari's 1967 use of stochastic gradient descent to train multilayer networks foreshadowed deep learning, which still trains this way.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stochastic_gradient_descent","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7617819"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_stochastic_gradient_descent_7617819"},{"id":"w_automatic_differentiation_787371","name":"Automatic differentiation","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of computer programming techniques to speedily compute derivatives. Seppo Linnainmaa publishes the reverse mode of automatic differentiation. This method became later known as backpropagation, and is heavily used to train artificial neural networks.","verdict":"Advance: Reverse-mode differentiation; backpropagation's engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automatic_differentiation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q787371"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_automatic_differentiation_787371"},{"id":"w_prolog_163468","name":"Prolog","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Programming language that uses first order logic. Prolog programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer.","verdict":"Advance: Alain Colmerauer's 1972 Prolog expressed logic as programs, used in expert systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Prolog","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163468"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_prolog_163468"},{"id":"w_version_space_1418474","name":"Version space","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Term in machine learning. Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program.","verdict":"Advance: Tom Mitchell's 1978 version spaces framed learning as search through hypotheses.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Version_space_learning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1418474"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_version_space_1418474"},{"id":"w_lisp_machine_1653376","name":"Lisp machine","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Historical computer. Lisp machine (CADR)","verdict":"Advance: MIT's Lisp machines (1970s) ran AI software on specialized hardware, pioneering workstations and GUIs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lisp_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1653376"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lisp_machine_1653376"},{"id":"w_fifth_generation_computer_systems_110952894","name":"Fifth Generation Computer Systems","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Initiative by Japan to create computers using massively parallel computing and logic programming.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Fifth Generation project (1982–92) pursued parallel logic programming, advancing research though falling short of its goals.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fifth_Generation_Computer_Systems","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110952894"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fifth_generation_computer_systems_110952894"},{"id":"w_intelligent_agent_1142726","name":"Intelligent agent","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Agent that perceives its environment, takes actions autonomously in order to achieve goals, and may improve its performance through learning or acquiring knowledge, whether. Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents. He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (cf. Doyle 1983).","verdict":"Advance: Intelligent agents, framed in 1980s AI research, act on goals autonomously, a concept now realized in AI assistants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intelligent_agent","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1142726"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intelligent_agent_1142726"},{"id":"w_telepresence_544830","name":"Telepresence","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of technologies which allow a person to feel as if they were present in another place. Carol Stoker and NASA Ames robotics team explore marine life in Antarctica with an undersea robot Telepresence ROV operated from the ice near McMurdo Bay, Antarctica and remotely via satellite link from Moffett Field, California.","verdict":"Advance: NASA's 1992 telepresence experiments let operators control remote robots, leading to Mars rover operations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Telepresence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q544830"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_telepresence_544830"},{"id":"w_computer_vision_844240","name":"Computer vision","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computerized information extraction from images. Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics by creating Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second).","verdict":"Advance: Computer vision, from 1960s research to deep learning, lets machines recognize faces, read signs and drive cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Computer_vision","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_computer_vision_844240"},{"id":"w_soft_computing_738759","name":"Soft computing","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computing that is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation. Lotfi A. Zadeh at U.C.","verdict":"Advance: Lotfi Zadeh's soft computing combined fuzzy logic, neural networks and evolutionary methods.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soft_computing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q738759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_soft_computing_738759"},{"id":"w_international_joint_conference_on_artifi_863401","name":"International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scientific conference on AI. Cindy Mason at NASA organizes the First International IJCAI Workshop on AI and the Environment.","verdict":"Advance: IJCAI (1969) became a leading international venue where AI research is presented.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Joint_Conference_on_Artificial_Intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863401"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_international_joint_conference_on_artifi_863401"},{"id":"w_creatures_1416338","name":"Creatures","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1990s artificial life game series. Steve Grand, roboticist and computer scientist, develops and releases Creatures, a popular simulation of artificial life-forms with simulated biochemistry, neurology with learning algorithms and inheritable digital DNA.","verdict":"Advance: Steve Grand's Creatures (1996) used artificial neurochemistry, an early artificial-life game.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Creatures_(video_game_series)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1416338"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_creatures_1416338"},{"id":"w_deep_blue_187899","name":"Deep Blue","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chess-playing supercomputer built by IBM. The Deep Blue chess machine ( IBM ) defeats the (then) world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's Deep Blue defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997, a landmark for machine intelligence.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187899"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_deep_blue_187899"},{"id":"w_furby_932209","name":"Furby","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic robotic toy. Tiger Electronics ' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of AI designated for a domestic environment.","verdict":"Advance: Furby (1998) sold 40 million units with scripted \"language learning,\" showing that a cheap sensor-equipped robot could feel lifelike to children.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Furby","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q932209"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_furby_932209"},{"id":"w_aibo_403438","name":"AIBO","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic dog made by Sony. Sony introduces an improved domestic robot similar to a Furby, the AIBO becomes one of the first artificially intelligent \"pets\" that is also autonomous.","verdict":"Advance: Sony's robot dog showed consumer robotics could sell.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AIBO","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q403438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_aibo_403438"},{"id":"w_web_crawler_45842","name":"Web crawler","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Internet bot that systematically browses the World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of Web indexing (web spidering). Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web.","verdict":"Advance: Web crawlers, from 1993's World Wide Web Wanderer to Googlebot, index the web for search.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Web_crawler","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45842"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_web_crawler_45842"},{"id":"w_smart_toy_7544083","name":"Smart toy","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Toy which can learn, behave according to pattern, and alter its actions depending on environmental stimuli using on-board electronics. Interactive robopets (\" smart toys \") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th-century novelty toy makers.","verdict":"Advance: Smart toys like Furby (1998) and AIBO (1999) responded to users, introducing children to robots.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Smart_toy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7544083"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_smart_toy_7544083"},{"id":"w_web_ontology_language_826165","name":"Web Ontology Language","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of knowledge representation languages. OWL Web Ontology Language W3C Recommendation (10 February 2004).","verdict":"Advance: The W3C's OWL (2004) encodes ontologies for the semantic web and biomedical knowledge bases.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Web_Ontology_Language","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q826165"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_web_ontology_language_826165"},{"id":"w_long_short_term_memory_6673524","name":"Long short-term memory","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Artificial recurrent neural network architecture used in deep learning. An LSTM trained by connectionist temporal classification was the first recurrent neural network to win pattern recognition contests, winning three competitions in connected handwriting recognition.","verdict":"Advance: Hochreiter and Schmidhuber's 1997 LSTM solved vanishing gradients, powering speech recognition before transformers.","dependencies":["w_recurrent_neural_network_1457734"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Long_short-term_memory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6673524"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_long_short_term_memory_6673524"},{"id":"w_generative_adversarial_network_25104379","name":"Generative adversarial network","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Deep learning method in which two neural networks compete with each other in a game, learning to generate new data with the same statistics as the training set. Ian Goodfellow and colleagues introduced generative adversarial networks (GANs), a framework in which two neural networks are trained in competition with each other.","verdict":"Advance: Ian Goodfellow's 2014 GANs pitted generator against discriminator, producing realistic synthetic images.","dependencies":["w_artificial_neural_network_192776"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generative_adversarial_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25104379"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_generative_adversarial_network_25104379"},{"id":"w_ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_12727779","name":"Ethics of artificial intelligence","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ethics of technology specific to robots and other artificially intelligent beings. Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was held, to discuss AI ethics and how to bring about beneficial AI while avoiding the existential risk from artificial general intelligence.","verdict":"Advance: AI ethics frameworks such as the 2017 Asilomar principles try to build safety and accountability into intelligent machines before they are deployed at scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12727779"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_12727779"},{"id":"w_chatbot_870780","name":"Chatbot","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Program or set of instructions that simulates conversation with humans. June 11 – Chatbot -technology and text-producing AI GPT-3 was released.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA (1966) mimicked a therapist, showing how readily people attribute minds to machines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chatbot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q870780"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_chatbot_870780"},{"id":"w_sputnik_2_190555","name":"Sputnik 2","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet artificial satellite that took the dog Laika to the space. USSR Sputnik 2 Sputnik-PS Success The first satellite to carry a living animal, a dog named Laika. 508 kg (1,118 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Laika on Sputnik 2 (November 1957) showed animals could survive launch and orbit, though she died within hours.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sputnik_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sputnik_2_190555"},{"id":"w_vanguard_1a_2364587","name":"Vanguard 1A","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. satellite, damaged in a launch failure in 1957 and now on display at the National Air and Space Museum. US Vanguard 1A Vanguard TV-3 Failure The first stage engine was improperly started, causing the vehicle to fall back to the launch pad immediately after launch and explode. 1.36 kg (2.99 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Vanguard TV-3 exploded on the pad in December 1957, a public failure that spurred US space reform.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vanguard_TV-3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2364587"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vanguard_1a_2364587"},{"id":"w_explorer_1_49901","name":"Explorer 1","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First satellite of the United States. February 1 US Explorer 1 Juno I Success The first American satellite in space. 13.91 kg (30.66 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 1 (31 January 1958) was the first US satellite and discovered the Van Allen belts.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Explorer_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49901"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_1_49901"},{"id":"w_vanguard_1b_4055351","name":"Vanguard 1B","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Second flight of the American Vanguard rocket. US Vanguard 1B Vanguard TV-3BU Failure Control failure caused vehicle breakup at T+57 seconds as vehicle exceeded an angle of attack of 45° due to a control system malfunction. 1.36 kg (2.99 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Vanguard TV-3BU failed in February 1958; such failures were common in learning to launch reliably.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_TV-3BU","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4055351"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vanguard_1b_4055351"},{"id":"w_explorer_2_553214","name":"Explorer 2","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American research satellite, lost during a launch vehicle failure. US Explorer 2 Juno I Failure Failed to orbit. Fourth stage did not ignite. 14.52 kg (31.94 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 2's March 1958 launch failure showed how unreliable early Juno rockets were.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q553214"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_2_553214"},{"id":"w_vanguard_1_676802","name":"Vanguard 1","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Fourth artificial Earth orbital satellite. US Vanguard 1C Vanguard TV-4 Success Vanguard 1. Expected to de-orbit in ~2240AD, this and its upper launch stage are the oldest human-made objects in space. Also the first use of solar cells to power a satellite. 1.47 kg (3.25 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Vanguard 1 (March 1958), the first solar-powered satellite, is still in orbit, the oldest human object in space.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vanguard_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q676802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vanguard_1_676802"},{"id":"w_explorer_3_550613","name":"Explorer 3","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American military research satellite. US Explorer 3 Juno I Success Added to data received by Explorer 1. 14.1 kg (31.0 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 3 (March 1958) recorded Van Allen data on a tape recorder, confirming the belts.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q550613"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_3_550613"},{"id":"w_vanguard_2_1076866","name":"Vanguard 2","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Earth-orbiting weather satellite. US Vanguard 2A Vanguard TV-5 Failure Second stage shutdown sequence not completed, preventing proper 3rd stage separation and firing. Did not reach orbit. 9.98 kg (21.96 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Vanguard 2 (February 1959) was the first weather satellite, though its tumble spoiled cloud images.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vanguard_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1076866"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vanguard_2_1076866"},{"id":"w_sputnik_3_719789","name":"Sputnik 3","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet research satellite. USSR Sputnik 3 Sputnik Success Contained 12 instruments for a wide range of upper atmosphere tests. 1,327 kg (2,926 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Sputnik 3 (1958) carried 12 instruments, a laboratory in orbit for atmospheric and radiation study.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sputnik_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q719789"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sputnik_3_719789"},{"id":"w_explorer_4_370053","name":"Explorer 4","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American research satellite launched in 1958. US Explorer 4 Juno I Success Expanded data set of previous Explorer missions and collected data from Argus high-altitude nuclear explosions. 11.7 kg (25.8 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 4 (1958) measured radiation from the Argus high-altitude nuclear tests.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370053"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_4_370053"},{"id":"w_pioneer_0_662498","name":"Pioneer 0","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. space probe destroyed due to a launch failure. US Pioneer 0 Thor-Able 1 Failure Failed to orbit. First stage engine failure caused explosion at T+77 seconds. 38 kg (84 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 0 (August 1958) was the first attempted lunar probe; it exploded 77 seconds after launch.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_0","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q662498"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_0_662498"},{"id":"w_explorer_5_2420378","name":"Explorer 5","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"United States satellite launched in 1958. US Explorer 5 Juno I Failure On-board instruments damaged on first stage separation. Failed to orbit. 11.7 kg (25.8 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 5 (1958) failed after stage collision, one of many early lessons.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2420378"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_5_2420378"},{"id":"w_pioneer_1_935600","name":"Pioneer 1","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First satellite launched by NASA, unable to reach lunar orbit due to rocket guidance failure. US Pioneer 1 Thor-Able 1 Partial success First spacecraft launched by NASA. Studied Earth's magnetic fields. Third stage provided insufficient thrust to reach the Moon, leaving it sub-orbital. 38 kg (84 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 1 (October 1958), NASA's first launch, reached 113,800 km and measured the radiation belts' extent.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935600"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_1_935600"},{"id":"w_beacon_23731","name":"Beacon","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA balloon satellite program. US Beacon 1 Juno I Failure A thin plastic sphere (12-feet in diameter) intended to study atmosphere density. Payload dropped due to rotational vibrations. 4.2 kg (9.2 lb)","verdict":"Advance: NASA's Beacon balloon satellite failed in 1958, but it led to the Echo passive comsats.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Beacon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23731"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_beacon_23731"},{"id":"w_pioneer_2_511236","name":"Pioneer 2","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. space probe lost due to a launch failure. US Pioneer 2 Thor-Able 1 Failure Briefly provided further data on Earth's magnetic field. Third stage provided insufficient thrust to reach the vicinity of the Moon. 38 kg (83 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 2 failed in November 1958 but briefly returned upper-atmosphere data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q511236"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_2_511236"},{"id":"w_pioneer_3_628186","name":"Pioneer 3","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. space probe lost due to a launch failure. US Pioneer 3 Juno II Partial success Did not reach the Moon as intended, but discovered a second radiation belt around Earth. 5.9 kg (13.0 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 3 (December 1958) missed the Moon but found a second radiation belt.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628186"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_3_628186"},{"id":"w_pioneer_4_597119","name":"Pioneer 4","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"U.S. space probe which performed a lunar flyby. US Pioneer 4 Juno II Success Passed within 60,030 km (37,300 mi) of the Moon into a heliocentric orbit, returning excellent radiation data. 6.1 kg (13.4 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 4 (March 1959) flew past the Moon, the first US probe to escape Earth.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q597119"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_4_597119"},{"id":"w_vanguard_3_632896","name":"Vanguard 3","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American research satellite. US Vanguard 3A Vanguard SLV-5 Failure Failed to orbit. Second stage hydraulics failure led to loss of control, damaged at launch. Two spheres included as payload. 10.3 kg (22.7 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Vanguard 3's April 1959 attempt failed; a successful repeat in September measured Earth's magnetic field.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q632896"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vanguard_3_632896"},{"id":"w_explorer_s_1_4530612","name":"Explorer S-1","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Geoscience satellite in the Explorers program; lost during a launch vehicle failure. US Explorer S-1 Juno II Failure Did not achieve orbit. Guidance system power malfunction. Destroyed by range safety officer at T+5.5s. 41.5 kg (91.3 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer S-1 was lost in a 1959 launch failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_S-1_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4530612"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_s_1_4530612"},{"id":"w_explorer_6_1384577","name":"Explorer 6","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA earth science satellite launched in 1959. US Explorer 6 Thor-Able 3 Success Included instruments to study particles and meteorology. 64.4 kg (141.7 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 6 (1959) took the first photograph of Earth from orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Explorer_6","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1384577"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_6_1384577"},{"id":"w_luna_3_942814","name":"Luna 3","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Lunar probe, first-ever mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. USSR Luna 3 Luna Success The first mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. 278.5 kg (614 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Luna 3 (October 1959) photographed the far side of the Moon, a world never before seen.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q942814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_3_942814"},{"id":"w_explorer_7_2509028","name":"Explorer 7","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1959 research satellite. US Explorer 7 Juno II Success Provided data on energetic particles, radiation, and magnetic storms. Also recorded the first micrometeorite penetration of a sensor. 41.5 kg (69.4 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 7 (1959) carried Verner Suomi's radiometer, which measured Earth's heat budget for climate science.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_7","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2509028"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_7_2509028"},{"id":"w_pioneer_p_3_296987","name":"Pioneer P-3","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. lunar orbiter destroyed in a launch failure. US Pioneer P-3 Atlas-Able 20 Failure Lunar orbiter probe; payload shroud failed at T+45 seconds, resulting in disintegration of upper stages and payload. 168.7 kg (371.1 lb)","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer P-3, a lunar orbiter, was lost in a November 1959 launch failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_P-3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296987"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_p_3_296987"},{"id":"w_pioneer_5_40518","name":"Pioneer 5","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"American space probe. March 11 US Pioneer 5 Thor-Able Sun Success Solar monitor. Measured magnetic field phenomena, solar flare particles, and ionization in the interplanetary region","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 5 (March 1960) measured interplanetary magnetic fields, relaying data from 36 million km.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40518"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_5_40518"},{"id":"w_korabl_sputnik_1_373632","name":"Korabl-Sputnik 1","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet test flight. USSR Korabl-Sputnik 1 Vostok-L Earth Success First test flight of the Soviet Vostok programme, and the first Vostok spacecraft","verdict":"Advance: Korabl-Sputnik 1 (May 1960) tested the Vostok capsule that would carry Gagarin.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Korabl-Sputnik_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q373632"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_korabl_sputnik_1_373632"},{"id":"w_tiros_1_646764","name":"TIROS-1","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former American weather satellite. US TIROS-1 Thor-Able Earth Success TIROS-1 (or TIROS-A ) was the first successful low-Earth orbital weather satellite, and the first of a series of Television Infrared Observation Satellites.","verdict":"Advance: TIROS-1 (April 1960) sent the first TV images of clouds from space, beginning satellite weather forecasting.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/TIROS-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q646764"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tiros_1_646764"},{"id":"w_explorer_8_935270","name":"Explorer 8","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American research satellite. US Explorer 8 Juno II Earth Partial success Battery power failed early, and data had to be processed by hand. In spite of this, new information about the ionosphere has been discovered","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 8 (1960) measured the ionosphere until its battery failed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935270"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_8_935270"},{"id":"w_venera_1_152500","name":"Venera 1","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet space probe. February 12 USSR Venera 1 Molniya 8K78 Venus Partial success First interplanetary flight, contact lost en route, before it performed the first flyby at another planet.","verdict":"Advance: Venera 1 (February 1961) was the first interplanetary probe, though contact was lost en route to Venus.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q152500"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_1_152500"},{"id":"w_explorer_11_49695","name":"Explorer 11","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. US Explorer 11 Juno II Earth Partial success Was the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope. Limited Battery Power restricted the data collection to the ascension stage.","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 11 (1961) carried the first space gamma-ray telescope.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_11","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49695"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_11_49695"},{"id":"w_epe_a_1166026","name":"EPE-A","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former American research satellite. US Explorer 12 (EPE-A) Thor-Delta A Earth Partial success The spacecraft functioned well until 6 December 1961, when it ceased transmitting data apparently as a result of failures in the power system.","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 12 (EPE-A, 1961) mapped energetic particles in the magnetosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_12","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1166026"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_epe_a_1166026"},{"id":"w_ranger_1_795339","name":"Ranger 1","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. US Ranger 1 Atlas-Agena Moon Failure Rocket malfunction left the spacecraft stranded in low Earth orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 1 (August 1961) was stranded in low orbit by an Agena failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795339"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_1_795339"},{"id":"w_ranger_2_733049","name":"Ranger 2","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Unmanned US spaceprobe. US Ranger 2 Atlas-Agena Moon Failure Booster rocket malfunction trapped spacecraft in low Earth orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 2 (1961) was again stranded by the Agena upper stage.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q733049"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_2_733049"},{"id":"w_ranger_3_609623","name":"Ranger 3","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"US spaceprobe to the Moon. January 26 US Ranger 3 Atlas-Agena Moon Failure NASA's first attempt to land a spacecraft on the Moon. A series of malfunctions sent spacecraft hurtling past the Moon.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 3 (January 1962) missed the Moon by 36,800 km.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q609623"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_3_609623"},{"id":"w_ranger_4_923962","name":"Ranger 4","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"US unmanned spaceprobe. US Ranger 4 Atlas-Agena Moon Partial failure Was the first U.S. spacecraft to reach another celestial body. Failure in the onboard computer prevented it from carrying out its scientific objectives.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 4 (1962) impacted the Moon, the first US spacecraft to do so.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ranger_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q923962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_4_923962"},{"id":"w_ariel_1_636557","name":"Ariel 1","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ionospheric research satellite. UK Ariel 1 Thor-Delta Earth Success First British satellite in space (on American rocket)","verdict":"Advance: First British satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ariel_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q636557"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_1_636557"},{"id":"w_telstar_1_751132","name":"Telstar 1","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Communications satellite launched by NASA on July 10, 1962. US Telstar 1 Thor-Delta Earth Success Communication satellite","verdict":"Advance: Telstar 1 relayed the first transatlantic live television in July 1962, starting satellite communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Telstar_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751132","https://grokipedia.com/page/Telstar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63114705"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_telstar_1_751132"},{"id":"w_mariner_1_213499","name":"Mariner 1","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First US attempt to fly by Venus. US Mariner 1 Atlas-Agena Venus Failure Software related guidance system failure, range safety officer ordered destroyed after 294.5 seconds after launch.","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 1 was destroyed after launch in July 1962 because of a guidance equation error, a lesson in software verification.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213499"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_1_213499"},{"id":"w_mariner_2_208984","name":"Mariner 2","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1962 space probe to Venus. US Mariner 2 Atlas-Agena Venus Success First spacecraft to visit another planet","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 2 flew past Venus in December 1962, the first successful planetary flyby, revealing a scorching surface.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208984"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_2_208984"},{"id":"w_alouette_1_1422160","name":"Alouette 1","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former Canadian research satellite. Canada Alouette 1 Thor-Agena Earth Success First Canadian satellite (on American rocket), first satellite not constructed by the US or USSR","verdict":"Advance: Canada's first satellite; it made Canada the third nation to build one.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alouette_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1422160"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_alouette_1_1422160"},{"id":"w_epe_b_733468","name":"EPE-B","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former American research satellite. US Explorer 14 (EPE-B) Thor-Delta A Earth Success NASA spacecraft instrumented to measure cosmic-ray particles, trapped particles, solar wind protons, and magnetospheric and interplanetary magnetic fields.","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 14 (EPE-B, 1962) studied radiation in the outer magnetosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_14","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q733468"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_epe_b_733468"},{"id":"w_ranger_5_767342","name":"Ranger 5","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"US unmanned spaceprobe. US Ranger 5 Atlas-Agena Moon Failure Malfunction in the spacecraft's batteries caused them to drain after 8 hours, leaving it inoperable.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 5 (1962) failed when its power system broke down.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q767342"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_5_767342"},{"id":"w_syncom_545738","name":"Syncom","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American geostationary communication satellites. US Syncom 2 Delta B Earth Success First successful television broadcast through a geosynchronous satellite.","verdict":"Advance: Syncom 2 (1963) and Syncom 3 (1964), the first geosynchronous satellites, broadcast the Tokyo Olympics.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Syncom","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q545738"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_syncom_545738"},{"id":"w_ranger_6_936275","name":"Ranger 6","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. February 2 US Ranger 6 Atlas-Agena Moon Success Lunar impactor. Successful impact but power failure resulted in no pictures.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 6 (1964) reached the Moon but its cameras failed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_6","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q936275"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_6_936275"},{"id":"w_ariel_2_795127","name":"Ariel 2","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Radio astronomy satellite. UK Ariel 2 Scout X-3 Earth Success First Radio Astronomy Satellite (on American rocket)","verdict":"Advance: British radio astronomy satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795127"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_2_795127"},{"id":"w_ranger_7_862558","name":"Ranger 7","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. US Ranger 7 Atlas-Agena Moon Success Lunar impactor. Returned pictures until impact.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 7 (July 1964) returned 4,300 close-up images before impact, the first US lunar success.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ranger_7","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_7_862558"},{"id":"w_mariner_4_203805","name":"Mariner 4","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic spacecraft sent by NASA to Mars. US Mariner 4 Atlas-Agena Mars Success First deep space photographs of another planet and first flyby of Mars","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 4 (1965) photographed Mars's cratered surface and found a thin atmosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203805"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_4_203805"},{"id":"w_san_marco_1_2088633","name":"San Marco 1","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First Italian satellite. Italy San Marco 1 Scout X-4 Earth Success First Italian satellite (on American rocket)","verdict":"Advance: Italy's San Marco 1 (1964) made Italy the third country to operate its own satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marco_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2088633"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_san_marco_1_2088633"},{"id":"w_ranger_8_862560","name":"Ranger 8","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. February 2 US Ranger 8 Atlas-Agena Moon Success Lunar impactor. Returned pictures until impact.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 8 (1965) photographed the Sea of Tranquility, helping select Apollo landing sites.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862560"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_8_862560"},{"id":"w_ranger_9_862563","name":"Ranger 9","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA lunar impactor. US Ranger 9 Atlas-Agena Moon Success Lunar impactor. Live TV broadcast until impact.","verdict":"Advance: Ranger 9 (March 1965) broadcast live TV of the Moon from Alphonsus crater until impact.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_9","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862563"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ranger_9_862563"},{"id":"w_intelsat_i_1250614","name":"Intelsat I","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"The first commercial communications satellite. US Intelsat I Delta D Earth Success First commercial communications satellite in orbit. Was operated off and on until 1990.","verdict":"Advance: Intelsat I \"Early Bird\" (April 1965) was the first commercial communications satellite, linking Europe and North America.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intelsat_I","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1250614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_intelsat_i_1250614"},{"id":"w_ast_rix_22744","name":"Astérix","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"French satellite. France Asterix Diamant A Earth Success First French satellite. First orbital launch outside U.S. and Soviet Union.","verdict":"Advance: First French satellite; France becomes the third launch power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ast%C3%A9rix_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22744"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ast_rix_22744"},{"id":"w_alouette_2_2650602","name":"Alouette 2","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Defunct Canadian research satellite. Canada Alouette 2 Thor-Agena Earth Success Research satellite designed to explore Earth's ionosphere","verdict":"Advance: Canadian ionospheric research satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alouette_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2650602"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_alouette_2_2650602"},{"id":"w_fr_1_1389529","name":"FR 1","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"French satellite. France FR-1 Scout X-4 Earth Success First French scientific satellite, designed to explore Earth's ionosphere, plasmasphere and magnetosphere.","verdict":"Advance: FR-1 (1965) was France's first scientific satellite, studying very-low-frequency waves.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FR-1_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1389529"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fr_1_1389529"},{"id":"w_pioneer_6_7_8_and_9_335408","name":"Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Subseries of Pioneer space probes launched by NASA. US Pioneer 6 Delta E Sun Success A series of solar-orbiting, spin-stabilized, solar-cell and battery-powered satellites designed to obtain measurements on a continuing basis of interplanetary phenomena from widely separated points in space.","verdict":"Advance: Pioneers 6–9 (1965–68) monitored the solar wind; Pioneer 6 is still operating as the oldest spacecraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_6,_7,_8,_and_9","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335408"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_6_7_8_and_9_335408"},{"id":"w_diamant_49568","name":"Diamant","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"French expendable satellite launcher. France Diapason Diamant A Earth Success Earth measurement by doppler radio measure","verdict":"Advance: France's Diamant (1965) made it the third nation to launch its own satellite (Astérix).","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diamant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49568"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_diamant_49568"},{"id":"w_explorer_33_1384557","name":"Explorer 33","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American scientific satellite from Explorer programme, forth in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform series. US Explorer 33 Delta E 1 Earth Partial success Was intended to orbit the Moon but instead orbited the Earth. Explored solar winds, interplanetary plasma, and solar X-rays.","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 33 (1966) studied the Earth's magnetic tail from a high orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_33","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1384557"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_33_1384557"},{"id":"w_lunar_orbiter_1_932976","name":"Lunar Orbiter 1","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First American robotic spacecraft to orbit the Moon. US Lunar Orbiter 1 Atlas SLV-3 Agena -D Moon Success First US spacecraft to orbit the Moon. Designed to photograph smooth areas of the lunar surface for selecting landing sites.","verdict":"Advance: Lunar Orbiter 1 (1966) photographed potential Apollo landing sites.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lunar_Orbiter_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q932976"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lunar_orbiter_1_932976"},{"id":"w_surveyor_2_862799","name":"Surveyor 2","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Failed lunar lander launched in 1966. US Surveyor 2 Atlas LV-3C Centaur -D Moon Failure Lunar Lander. A failure in one of its three thrusters caused it to lose control and crash into the Moon.","verdict":"Advance: Surveyor 2 (1966) crashed after a thruster failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862799"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_surveyor_2_862799"},{"id":"w_lunar_orbiter_2_946427","name":"Lunar Orbiter 2","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. US Lunar Orbiter 2 Atlas SLV-3 Agena -D Moon Success Designed to photograph smooth areas of the lunar surface to identify landing sites.","verdict":"Advance: Lunar Orbiter 2's 1966 image of crater Copernicus was called \"the picture of the century\".","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q946427"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lunar_orbiter_2_946427"},{"id":"w_ariel_3_795233","name":"Ariel 3","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Atmospheric research satellite. UK Ariel 3 Scout A Earth Success First entirely British built satellite","verdict":"Advance: First all-British-built satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795233"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_3_795233"},{"id":"w_surveyor_4_862566","name":"Surveyor 4","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American lunar lander. US Surveyor 4 Atlas LV-3C Centaur -D Moon Failure Despite a perfect flight to the Moon, communications was lost 2.5 minutes prior to landing. NASA concluded the spacecraft may have exploded.","verdict":"Advance: Surveyor 4 (1967) lost contact moments before landing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862566"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_surveyor_4_862566"},{"id":"w_wresat_2141441","name":"WRESAT","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First Australian satellite. Australia WRESAT Sparta Earth Success First Australian satellite (on American rocket) launched from Woomera, Australia. Third nation to launch a satellite from its own soil.","verdict":"Advance: Australia's WRESAT (1967), on a US-supplied Redstone, made it the third country to launch from its own territory.","dependencies":[],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRESAT","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2141441"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_wresat_2141441"},{"id":"w_international_satellite_for_ionospheric__1165137","name":"International Satellite for Ionospheric Studies","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Satellites studying Earth's inosphere. January 30 Canada ISIS 1 Delta E 1 Earth Success International Satellites for Ionospheric Studies (ISIS)","verdict":"Advance: Canada's ISIS satellites (1969–) studied the ionosphere, extending Alouette's work.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIS_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1165137"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_international_satellite_for_ionospheric__1165137"},{"id":"w_mariner_6_and_7_719710","name":"Mariner 6 and 7","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Uncrewed probes sent by NASA as part of Mariner program in 1969. US Mariner 6 Atlas SLV-3D Agena-D1A Mars Success Mars probe attempting to study the surface and atmosphere of Mars during close flybys to establish a basis for further investigations.","verdict":"Advance: Mariners 6 and 7 (1969) imaged Mars's south pole and measured its CO₂ atmosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_6_and_7","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q719710"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_6_and_7_719710"},{"id":"w_azur_23663","name":"Azur","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First German scientific satellite. West Germany Azur / (GRS A) (German Research Satellite) Scout B S169C Earth Success The scientific mission was to: scan the energy spectra of inner zone protons and electrons;","verdict":"Advance: First German satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azur_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23663"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_azur_23663"},{"id":"w_ohsumi_166596","name":"Ohsumi","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First Japanese satellite put into orbit. February 11 Japan Ohsumi Earth Success First Japanese satellite. Japan became the fourth nation after the USSR, USA and France to successfully put an artificial satellite into orbit on its own.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Ohsumi (February 1970) made it the fourth nation to launch a satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ohsumi_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166596"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ohsumi_166596"},{"id":"w_dong_fang_hong_i_49678","name":"Dong Fang Hong I","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First satellite launched by China. China Dong Fang Hong I Success First Chinese satellite","verdict":"Advance: China's Dong Fang Hong I (April 1970) broadcast \"The East Is Red\", China's entry into space.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dong_Fang_Hong_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49678"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_dong_fang_hong_i_49678"},{"id":"w_luna_16_858293","name":"Luna 16","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. USSR Luna 16 Moon Success Lander is the first automated return of samples from the Moon","verdict":"Advance: Luna 16 (September 1970) returned 101 g of Moon soil, the first automated sample return.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_16","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858293"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_16_858293"},{"id":"w_zond_8_366944","name":"Zond 8","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Uncrewed version of Soyuz 7K-L1. Zond 8 Success Flyby","verdict":"Advance: Zond 8 (1970) flew around the Moon and returned to Earth.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q366944"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_zond_8_366944"},{"id":"w_luna_17_371939","name":"Luna 17","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. Luna 17 / Lunokhod 1 Success Lander/ rover is the first automated surface exploration of the Moon","verdict":"Advance: Luna 17 (1970) delivered Lunokhod 1, the first rover on the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_17","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q371939"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_17_371939"},{"id":"w_mariner_8_746536","name":"Mariner 8","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1971 Mars spacecraft. US Mariner 8 Mars Failure Orbiter. Lost due to launch failure.","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 8 (1971) was lost to an upper-stage failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q746536"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_8_746536"},{"id":"w_kosmos_419_2503206","name":"Kosmos 419","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Failed Soviet Mars orbiter. USSR Cosmos 419 Failure Probe","verdict":"Advance: Kosmos 419 (1971) was stuck in Earth orbit when its booster misfired.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos_419","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2503206"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kosmos_419_2503206"},{"id":"w_mars_3_718908","name":"Mars 3","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Unmanned USSR spaceprobe. Mars 3 Success Orbiter and lander, first successful landing on Mars","verdict":"Advance: Mars 3's lander (December 1971) was the first to soft-land on Mars, though it fell silent after 20 seconds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q718908"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_3_718908"},{"id":"w_luna_18_668942","name":"Luna 18","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. USSR Luna 18 Moon Failure Lander","verdict":"Advance: Luna 18 (1971) crashed in rugged highland terrain.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_18","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q668942"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_18_668942"},{"id":"w_luna_19_950112","name":"Luna 19","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. Luna 19 Success Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Luna 19 (1971) orbited the Moon for a year, mapping gravity anomalies.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_19","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q950112"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_19_950112"},{"id":"w_prospero_282184","name":"Prospero","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"British Satellite. UK Prospero X-3 Success Satellite, first satellite launched by Britain using a British rocket","verdict":"Advance: Prospero (1971), launched on Black Arrow, made Britain the sixth nation to orbit a satellite on its own rocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Prospero_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282184"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_prospero_282184"},{"id":"w_ariel_4_795123","name":"Ariel 4","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Atmospheric research satellite. UK Ariel 4 Success","verdict":"Advance: British atmospheric research satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795123"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_4_795123"},{"id":"w_luna_20_761733","name":"Luna 20","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet space probe. February 17 USSR Luna 20 Moon Success Lander","verdict":"Advance: Luna 20 (1972) returned highland samples from the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_20","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q761733"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_20_761733"},{"id":"w_pioneer_10_59103","name":"Pioneer 10","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA space probe launched in March 1972. US Pioneer 10 Jupiter Success First spacecraft to encounter Jupiter","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 10 (1972) was the first spacecraft through the asteroid belt and to Jupiter.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_10","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59103"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_10_59103"},{"id":"w_venera_8_251645","name":"Venera 8","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet space probe which delivered a lander to Venus. USSR Venera 8 Venus Success Lander","verdict":"Advance: Venera 8 (1972) landed on Venus and transmitted for 50 minutes, measuring 470 °C and crushing pressure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251645"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_8_251645"},{"id":"w_luna_21_684044","name":"Luna 21","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet spacecraft that landed on the Moon and deployed the Lunokhod 2 lunar rover. January 8/11 USSR Luna 21 / Lunokhod 2 Moon Success Lander/rover","verdict":"Advance: Luna 21 delivered Lunokhod 2 in January 1973; it drove 39 km, a record that stood until 2014.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_21","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q684044"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_21_684044"},{"id":"w_pioneer_11_59113","name":"Pioneer 11","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic space probe launched by NASA for planetary and heliosphere exploration. US Pioneer 11 Jupiter/Saturn Success First spacecraft to encounter Saturn","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer 11 (1973) flew past Jupiter and became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn, in 1979.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_11","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59113"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_11_59113"},{"id":"w_explorer_49_1781732","name":"Explorer 49","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Satellite launched by NASA for long range radio astronomy. US Explorer 49 Sun Success Solar probe","verdict":"Advance: Explorer 49 (1973) orbited the Moon to do radio astronomy shielded from Earth's radio noise.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_49","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1781732"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_explorer_49_1781732"},{"id":"w_mars_4_1067650","name":"Mars 4","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. USSR Mars 4 Mars Failure Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Mars 4 launched in 1973 but missed Mars orbit in Feb 1974, a casualty of faulty Soviet transistors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1067650"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_4_1067650"},{"id":"w_mars_5_1065662","name":"Mars 5","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. Mars 5 Success Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Mars 5 (1974) returned 60 images of Mars before failing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1065662"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_5_1065662"},{"id":"w_mars_6_909664","name":"Mars 6","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. Mars 6 Failure Orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Mars 6 (1974) returned the first Martian atmosphere data during descent before crashing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_6","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q909664"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_6_909664"},{"id":"w_mars_7_1041855","name":"Mars 7","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Unmanned USSR spaceprobe. Mars 7 Failure Orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Mars 7's lander (1974) missed Mars by 1,300 km.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_7","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1041855"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_7_1041855"},{"id":"w_mariner_10_59131","name":"Mariner 10","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"American space probe. US Mariner 10 Venus/Mercury Success It passed by and photographed Mercury, also was the first dual planet probe","verdict":"Advance: Mariner 10 (1973–75) made the first gravity assist via Venus and the first images of Mercury.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner_10","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59131"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_10_59131"},{"id":"w_luna_22_950874","name":"Luna 22","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. May 29 USSR Luna 22 Moon Success Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Luna 22 (1974) orbited the Moon for 18 months studying its gravity and surface.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_22","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q950874"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_22_950874"},{"id":"w_ariel_5_659360","name":"Ariel 5","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Astronomical research satellite. UK Ariel 5 Success X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: British X-ray astronomy satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q659360"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_5_659360"},{"id":"w_luna_23_950990","name":"Luna 23","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. USSR Luna 23 Moon Failure Probe","verdict":"Advance: Luna 23 (1974) toppled on landing, preventing its sample return.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luna_23","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q950990"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_luna_23_950990"},{"id":"w_helios_program_664667","name":"Helios Program","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pair of solar probes operated by NASA and DLR. West Germany Helios 1 Sun Success Solar probe","verdict":"Advance: NASA and West Germany's Helios probes (1974, 1976) set records for close solar approach and spacecraft speed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Helios_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q664667"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_helios_program_664667"},{"id":"w_starlette_519185","name":"Starlette","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Geodetic satellite. February 6 France Starlette Earth Success Laser reflector for Earth-based measurement","verdict":"Advance: France's Starlette (1975), a laser-ranging sphere, still measures Earth's gravity field and tides.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlette_and_Stella","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q519185"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_starlette_519185"},{"id":"w_aryabhata_19706","name":"Aryabhata","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"India's first satellite. India Aryabhata Success Launched by USSR, the first Indian satellite","verdict":"Advance: India's first satellite, launched by the USSR.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aryabhata_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19706"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_aryabhata_19706"},{"id":"w_venera_10_836463","name":"Venera 10","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. Venera 10 Success Orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Venera 10 (1975) landed on Venus and sent back surface images from a second site.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_10","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836463"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_10_836463"},{"id":"w_viking_1_210199","name":"Viking 1","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA mission which sent an orbiter and lander to Mars. US Viking 1 Mars Success Orbiter and lander; lands on Mars 1976","verdict":"Advance: Viking 1 landed on Mars in July 1976, operating for six years and searching for life.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Viking_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210199"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_viking_1_210199"},{"id":"w_viking_2_212131","name":"Viking 2","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA mission which sent an orbiter and lander to Mars. Viking 2 Success Orbiter and lander; lands on Mars 1976","verdict":"Advance: Viking 2 (1976) landed at Utopia Planitia and photographed frost on Mars.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Viking_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212131"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_viking_2_212131"},{"id":"w_palapa_2000754","name":"Palapa","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of Indonesian geostationary communication satellites. Indonesia Palapa A1 Success Launched by US, The First Indonesian GEO Satellite for domestic Communication","verdict":"Advance: Indonesia's Palapa A1 (1976) was the first domestic comsat in Asia, linking 13,000 islands.","dependencies":["comm_satellite"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Palapa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2000754"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_palapa_2000754"},{"id":"w_high_energy_astronomy_observatory_1_265594","name":"High Energy Astronomy Observatory 1","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. August 12 US HEAO-1 Earth Success X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: HEAO-1 (1977) surveyed the X-ray sky, cataloguing 1,500 sources.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Energy_Astronomy_Observatory_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q265594"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_high_energy_astronomy_observatory_1_265594"},{"id":"w_voyager_2_48475","name":"Voyager 2","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe launched by NASA to study the outer Solar System, second furthest spacecraft from Earth after Voyager 1. Voyager 2 Jupiter/Saturn/ Uranus/Neptune Success First spacecraft to encounter Uranus and Neptune","verdict":"Advance: Voyager 2 (1977) is the only probe to visit Uranus and Neptune, and it entered interstellar space in 2018.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Voyager_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48475"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_voyager_2_48475"},{"id":"w_voyager_1_48469","name":"Voyager 1","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Space probe launched by NASA to study the outer Solar System, furthest spacecraft from Earth. Voyager 1 Jupiter/Saturn Success First spacecraft to enter interstellar space","verdict":"Advance: Voyager 1 (1977) toured Jupiter and Saturn and in 2012 became the first craft in interstellar space.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Voyager_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48469"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_voyager_1_48469"},{"id":"w_kosmos_954_569198","name":"Kosmos 954","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Failed nuclear spacecraft. USSR Kosmos 954 Earth Success Reconnaissance satellites","verdict":"Drift: A nuclear-powered spy satellite that scattered radioactive debris over Canada.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kosmos_954","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q569198"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kosmos_954_569198"},{"id":"w_pioneer_venus_orbiter_1611468","name":"Pioneer Venus Orbiter","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA space probe to Venus. May 20 US Pioneer Venus 1 Venus Success Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer Venus Orbiter (1978) mapped Venus by radar for 14 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_Venus_Orbiter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1611468"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_venus_orbiter_1611468"},{"id":"w_pioneer_venus_multiprobe_1611466","name":"Pioneer Venus Multiprobe","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Venus atmospheric-entry probe mission. Pioneer Venus 2 Success Atmospheric probe","verdict":"Advance: Pioneer Venus Multiprobe (1978) dropped four probes into Venus's atmosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pioneer_Venus_Multiprobe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1611466"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pioneer_venus_multiprobe_1611466"},{"id":"w_venera_11_751873","name":"Venera 11","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet space probe. USSR Venera 11 Venus Success Flyby and lander","verdict":"Advance: Venera 11 (1978) landed on Venus and detected lightning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_11","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751873"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_11_751873"},{"id":"w_venera_12_25029","name":"Venera 12","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet space mission to Venus. Venera 12 Success","verdict":"Advance: Venera 12 (1978) landed on Venus and measured its atmosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_12","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25029"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_12_25029"},{"id":"w_magion_1_23832741","name":"Magion 1","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Czechoslovak scientific satellite. Czechoslovakia Magion 1 Earth Success First satellite for Czechoslovakia","verdict":"Advance: Czechoslovakia's Magion 1 (1978) was its first satellite, studying the magnetosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magion_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23832741"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_magion_1_23832741"},{"id":"w_einstein_observatory_1426842","name":"Einstein Observatory","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. US HEAO-2 Success First X-ray photographs of astronomical objects","verdict":"Advance: The Einstein Observatory (1978) took the first focused X-ray images of celestial objects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1426842"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_einstein_observatory_1426842"},{"id":"w_hakucho_1570051","name":"Hakucho","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. February 21 Japan Hakucho Earth Success X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: Hakucho (1979), Japan's first X-ray satellite, detected numerous X-ray bursters.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakucho","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1570051"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hakucho_1570051"},{"id":"w_ariel_6_507511","name":"Ariel 6","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Astronomical research satellite. UK Ariel 6 Success Cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: British cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_VI","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q507511"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariel_6_507511"},{"id":"w_bhaskara_25254","name":"Bhaskara","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Satellite. India Bhaskara-1 Success Launched by ISRO (First successfully launched Indian low orbit Earth Observation Satellite)","verdict":"Advance: India's Bhaskara-1 (1979) was its first Earth-observation satellite, launched on a Soviet rocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bhaskara_(satellites)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25254"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bhaskara_25254"},{"id":"w_rohini_satellite_series_2341480","name":"Rohini Satellite Series","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Indian experimental satellite series developed by ISRO for the SLV-3 programme. Rohini Technology Payload Failure Launched by ISRO. Purpose was to monitor flight performance of SLV but a faulty valve caused vehicle to crash into the Bay of Bengal 317 seconds after launch.","verdict":"Advance: India's Rohini satellites (1980) on the SLV-3 made India the seventh nation to reach orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rohini_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2341480"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rohini_satellite_series_2341480"},{"id":"w_solar_maximum_mission_1188874","name":"Solar Maximum Mission","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former solar observatory satellite. US Solar Maximum Mission Sun Failure Solar Maximum Mission solar probe succeeded after being repaired in Earth orbit","verdict":"Advance: The Solar Maximum Mission (1980) was repaired in orbit by Challenger in 1984, the first satellite repair.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Maximum_Mission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1188874"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_solar_maximum_mission_1188874"},{"id":"w_venera_13_372064","name":"Venera 13","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet space probe. Venera 13 Venus Success Venera 13 launched, it returned the first colour pictures of the surface of Venus","verdict":"Advance: Venera 13 (1982) sent the first colour photographs of Venus's surface.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_13","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q372064"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_13_372064"},{"id":"w_venera_14_891991","name":"Venera 14","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet space probe. Venera 14 Venus Success Venera 14 flyby and lander","verdict":"Advance: Venera 14 (1982) analysed Venus's surface rock with a drill.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_14","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q891991"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_14_891991"},{"id":"w_bulgaria_1300_1275965","name":"Bulgaria 1300","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bulgaria's first artificial satellite. Bulgaria 1300 Earth Success Bulgaria 1300, polar research mission, was Bulgaria's first artificial satellite; launched by the Soviet Union","verdict":"Advance: Intercosmos Bulgaria 1300 (1981) made Bulgaria the third country of the Eastern Bloc to build a satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_1300","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1275965"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bulgaria_1300_1275965"},{"id":"w_venera_15_904317","name":"Venera 15","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet Venus orbiter. USSR Venera 15 Venus Success Venera 15 orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Venera 15 (1983) mapped Venus's northern hemisphere by radar.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_15","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q904317"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_15_904317"},{"id":"w_venera_16_798525","name":"Venera 16","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. Venera 16 Venus Success Venera 16 orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Venera 16 (1983) mapped Venus's surface together with Venera 15.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venera_16","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q798525"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venera_16_798525"},{"id":"w_exosat_49694","name":"EXOSAT","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. EXOSAT Earth Success Launch of the EXOSAT X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: ESA's EXOSAT (1983) studied X-ray binaries for variability.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXOSAT","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49694"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_exosat_49694"},{"id":"w_tenma_54376","name":"Tenma","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space observatory. Tenma Earth Success Launch of the Tenma X-ray satellite ( ASTRO-B )","verdict":"Advance: Tenma (1983), Japan's second X-ray satellite, studied neutron stars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenma","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54376"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tenma_54376"},{"id":"w_iras_724913","name":"IRAS","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space observatory. IRAS Earth Success Launch of the IRAS satellite","verdict":"Advance: IRAS (1983) surveyed the sky in infrared, finding 350,000 sources and dust disks around stars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IRAS","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q724913"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_iras_724913"},{"id":"w_vega_1_1153267","name":"Vega 1","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet space probe. USSR Vega 1 Venus/Halley's Comet Success Vega 1 flyby, atmospheric probe and lander","verdict":"Advance: Vega 1 (1984) dropped a balloon into Venus's atmosphere and flew past Halley's Comet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vega_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1153267"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vega_1_1153267"},{"id":"w_vega_2_1191435","name":"Vega 2","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet space probe. Vega 2 Venus/Halley's Comet Success Vega 2 flyby, atmospheric probe and lander","verdict":"Advance: Vega 2 (1984) landed on Venus and flew past Halley's comet, guiding Europe's Giotto.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vega_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1191435"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vega_2_1191435"},{"id":"w_sakigake_1065268","name":"Sakigake","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese space probe. Japan Sakigake Halley's Comet Success Sakigake flyby, Japan's first interplanetary spacecraft","verdict":"Advance: Sakigake (1985), Japan's first interplanetary probe, flew past Halley's comet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakigake","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1065268"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sakigake_1065268"},{"id":"w_suisei_516725","name":"Suisei","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese space probe. Suisei Halley's Comet Success Suisei flyby","verdict":"Advance: Suisei (1985) studied Halley's comet with UV imaging.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suisei_%28spacecraft%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q516725"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_suisei_516725"},{"id":"w_giotto_660356","name":"Giotto","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Retired ESA spacecraft which visited Comets Halley and Grigg-Skjellerup. Europe Giotto Halley's Comet Success Giotto flyby","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Giotto (1986) flew within 600 km of Halley's nucleus.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Giotto_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q660356"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_giotto_660356"},{"id":"w_ginga_1524954","name":"Ginga","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Satellite. Japan Ginga Earth Success Launch of the Ginga X-ray satellite ( ASTRO-C )","verdict":"Advance: Ginga (1987) studied X-ray sources and gamma-ray bursts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginga_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1524954"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ginga_1524954"},{"id":"w_phobos_1_2912121","name":"Phobos 1","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet mars mission. USSR Phobos 1 Mars Failure Phobos 1 orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Phobos 1 (1988) was lost when a command error disabled it.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phobos_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2912121"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_phobos_1_2912121"},{"id":"w_phobos_2_2147975","name":"Phobos 2","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet Mars probe. Phobos 2 Mars Failure Phobos 2 flyby and lander","verdict":"Advance: Phobos 2 (1988) studied Mars and Phobos before failing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phobos_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2147975"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_phobos_2_2147975"},{"id":"w_ofeq_1130496","name":"Ofeq","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of Israeli reconnaissance satellites. Ofeq 1 Earth Success Ofeq 1 first Israeli satellite, first satellite to be launched in retrograde orbit","verdict":"Advance: Israel's Ofeq 1 (1988) was launched westward over the Mediterranean, making Israel the eighth nation in orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ofeq","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1130496"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ofeq_1130496"},{"id":"w_magellan_466932","name":"Magellan","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA robotic space probe that studied the planet Venus. US Magellan Venus Success Magellan orbiter launched which mapped 99 percent of the surface of Venus (300 m resolution)","verdict":"Advance: Magellan (1989) mapped 98% of Venus by radar.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magellan_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466932"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_magellan_466932"},{"id":"w_cosmic_background_explorer_49445","name":"Cosmic Background Explorer","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Decommissioned NASA space observatory. COBE Earth Success Launch of the COBE satellite","verdict":"Advance: COBE (1989) measured the cosmic microwave background, earning the 2006 Nobel Prize.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cosmic_Background_Explorer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49445"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_cosmic_background_explorer_49445"},{"id":"w_granat_49975","name":"Granat","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former Soviet/Russian space observatory. Granat Earth Success Launch of the Granat gamma-ray and X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: Granat (1989) studied X-ray and gamma-ray sources.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49975"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_granat_49975"},{"id":"w_hiten_935149","name":"HITEN","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese lunar orbiter. Hiten Moon Success Hiten probe, this was the first non-United States or USSR probe to reach the Moon","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Hiten (1990) was the first non-US/USSR lunar probe, testing aerobraking.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hiten_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935149"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hiten_935149"},{"id":"w_badr_1_23687","name":"Badr-1","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pakistani digital communication satellite. Badr-1 Earth Success Launch of Badr-1 Pakistan 1st communication satellite","verdict":"Advance: Pakistan's first satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Badr-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23687"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_badr_1_23687"},{"id":"w_rosat_54284","name":"ROSAT","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"German space observatory. ROSAT Earth Success Launch of the ROSAT X-ray satellite to conduct the first imaging X-ray sky survey","verdict":"Advance: ROSAT (1990) made an imaging survey of the X-ray sky, cataloguing 150,000 sources.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROSAT","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54284"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rosat_54284"},{"id":"w_yohkoh_586893","name":"Yohkoh","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former solar observatory satellite. Japan Yohkoh Sun Success Yohkoh solar probe","verdict":"Advance: Yohkoh (1991) imaged the solar corona in X-rays.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohkoh","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q586893"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_yohkoh_586893"},{"id":"w_compton_gamma_ray_observatory_41519","name":"Compton Gamma Ray Observatory","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former NASA space observatory. Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory Earth Success Launch of the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory satellite","verdict":"Advance: The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991) showed gamma-ray bursts were cosmological.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41519"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_compton_gamma_ray_observatory_41519"},{"id":"w_mars_observer_634772","name":"Mars Observer","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space probe. US Mars Observer Mars Failure Mars Observer orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Mars Observer (1992) was lost just before orbit insertion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Observer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q634772"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_observer_634772"},{"id":"w_advanced_satellite_for_cosmology_and_ast_15018","name":"Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cosmic X-ray astronomy mission. Japan ASCA Earth Success Launch of the ASCA (ASTRO-D) X-ray satellite","verdict":"Advance: Japan's X-ray astronomy satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Satellite_for_Cosmology_and_Astrophysics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15018"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_advanced_satellite_for_cosmology_and_ast_15018"},{"id":"w_clementine_49055","name":"Clementine","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American lunar orbiter. US Clementine Moon Success Clementine orbiter mapped the surface of the Moon (resolution 125–150 m) and allowed the first accurate relief map of the Moon to be generated","verdict":"Advance: Clementine (1994) mapped the Moon and found signs of polar ice.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Clementine_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_clementine_49055"},{"id":"w_sich_1_2657190","name":"Sich-1","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ukrainian satellite. Sich-1 Earth Success Sich-1 launched, first Ukrainian-built satellite","verdict":"Advance: Ukraine's Sich-1 (1995) was its first national Earth-observation satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sich-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2657190"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sich_1_2657190"},{"id":"w_infrared_space_observatory_779547","name":"Infrared Space Observatory","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned ESA space observatory. ISO Earth Success Launch of the Infrared Space Observatory","verdict":"Advance: ESA's ISO (1995) studied infrared sources including water in space.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Space_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q779547"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_infrared_space_observatory_779547"},{"id":"w_solar_and_heliospheric_observatory_320638","name":"Solar and Heliospheric Observatory","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space observatory. SOHO Sun Success SOHO solar probe","verdict":"Advance: SOHO (1995) watches the Sun continuously and has discovered more than 5,000 comets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_solar_and_heliospheric_observatory_320638"},{"id":"w_near_shoemaker_217188","name":"NEAR Shoemaker","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1996 robotic space probe that landed on asteroid 433 Eros in 2001. US NEAR Shoemaker 433 Eros Success NEAR Shoemaker asteroid flybys/orbiter/lander","verdict":"Advance: NEAR Shoemaker (1996) landed on asteroid Eros in 2001, the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NEAR_Shoemaker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217188"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_near_shoemaker_217188"},{"id":"w_mars_global_surveyor_206300","name":"Mars Global Surveyor","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"US spacecraft developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Mars Global Surveyor Mars Success Mars Global Surveyor orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Mars Global Surveyor (1996) mapped Mars and found gullies suggesting recent water.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Global_Surveyor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206300"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_global_surveyor_206300"},{"id":"w_mars_pathfinder_201771","name":"Mars Pathfinder","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mars lander. Mars Pathfinder Mars Success Mars Pathfinder, the first automated surface exploration of another planet","verdict":"Advance: Mars Pathfinder (1997) landed with airbags and released Sojourner, the first rover on Mars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Pathfinder","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201771"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_pathfinder_201771"},{"id":"w_mars_96_656260","name":"Mars 96","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Failed Russian Mars mission. Mars 96 Mars Failure Mars 96 orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Russia's Mars 96 failed to leave Earth orbit and crashed in South America.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_96","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q656260"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_96_656260"},{"id":"w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_1_978667","name":"Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"North Korean satellite, lost in a launch failure. North Korea Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 Earth Unknown Claimed launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 by North Korea though no independent source was able to verify its existence","verdict":"Advance: North Korea claimed Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 reached orbit in 1998, but no one tracked it (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwangmy%C5%8Fngs%C5%8Fng-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q978667"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_1_978667"},{"id":"w_nozomi_849074","name":"Nozomi","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. Nozomi Mars Failure Nozomi (Planet B) orbiter, the first Japanese spacecraft to reach another planet","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Nozomi (1998) reached Mars in 2003 but failed to enter orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nozomi_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849074"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nozomi_849074"},{"id":"w_mars_climate_orbiter_574464","name":"Mars Climate Orbiter","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic space probe launched by NASA on December 11, 1998. Mars Climate Orbiter Mars Failure Mars Climate Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: Mars Climate Orbiter (1999) was lost because of a mismatch between imperial and metric units, a lesson in software discipline.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Climate_Orbiter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q574464"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_climate_orbiter_574464"},{"id":"w_mars_polar_lander_575922","name":"Mars Polar Lander","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic spacecraft lander launched by NASA on January 3, 1999. US Mars Polar Lander Mars Failure Mars Polar Lander","verdict":"Advance: Mars Polar Lander (1999) crashed because its engines cut off prematurely.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Polar_Lander","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q575922"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_polar_lander_575922"},{"id":"w_deep_space_2_575934","name":"Deep Space 2","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Twin Mars impact probes. Deep Space 2 Mars Failure Deep Space 2 (DS2) penetrators","verdict":"Advance: NASA's Deep Space 2 penetrators (1999) were lost with Mars Polar Lander.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deep_Space_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q575934"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_deep_space_2_575934"},{"id":"w_chandra_x_ray_observatory_49002","name":"Chandra X-ray Observatory","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA space observatory. Chandra Earth Success Launch of the Chandra X-ray Observatory","verdict":"Advance: Chandra (1999) has imaged X-rays from black holes and supernovae for over 25 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49002"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chandra_x_ray_observatory_49002"},{"id":"w_xmm_newton_693861","name":"XMM-Newton","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"ESA space observatory. XMM-Newton Earth Success Launch of the X-Ray Multi-Mirror Mission, XMM-Newton","verdict":"Advance: ESA's XMM-Newton (1999) studies X-ray sources with large mirror area.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/XMM-Newton","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q693861"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_xmm_newton_693861"},{"id":"w_t_rksat_2a_1374288","name":"Türksat 2A","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned Turkish communications satellite. Turkey Türksat 2A Earth Success Türksat 2A, third Turkish communications satellite","verdict":"Advance: Türksat 2A (2001) gave Turkey its own communications satellite coverage.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_2A","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1374288"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_t_rksat_2a_1374288"},{"id":"w_genesis_74418","name":"Genesis","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA sample return probe. Genesis Sun Partial success Genesis solar wind sample crash-landed on return","verdict":"Advance: Genesis returned solar wind samples in 2004 despite crash-landing when its parachute failed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genesis_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q74418"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_genesis_74418"},{"id":"w_wilkinson_microwave_anisotropy_probe_274106","name":"Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"NASA Cosmic Microwave Background probe launched in 2001. WMAP Earth Success Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) performs cosmological observations.","verdict":"Advance: WMAP (2001) pinned down the universe's age at 13.77 billion years and its composition.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q274106"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_wilkinson_microwave_anisotropy_probe_274106"},{"id":"w_2001_mars_odyssey_207164","name":"2001 Mars Odyssey","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"2001 NASA orbiter studying the geology and hydrology of Mars. Mars Odyssey Mars Success Mars Odyssey","verdict":"Advance: Long-lived Mars orbiter that mapped water ice and relayed rover data.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/2001_Mars_Odyssey","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207164"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_2001_mars_odyssey_207164"},{"id":"w_proba_1_1479854","name":"PROBA-1","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"ESA Earth observation satellite. PROBA-1 Earth Success PROBA-1 Small satellite to observe the Earth (first Belgian Satellite)","verdict":"Advance: ESA's PROBA-1 (2001) demonstrated autonomous small-satellite operations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1479854"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_proba_1_1479854"},{"id":"w_microvariability_and_oscillations_of_sta_24626","name":"Microvariability and Oscillations of Stars","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Smallsat space telescope. Canada MOST Earth Success MOST the smallest space telescope in orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Canada's MOST (2003), a suitcase-sized telescope, measured stellar oscillations.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOST_%28spacecraft%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q24626"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_microvariability_and_oscillations_of_sta_24626"},{"id":"w_integral_50021","name":"INTEGRAL","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Currently operational space telescope for observing gamma rays. INTEGRAL Earth Success Launch of the INTEGRAL gamma-ray satellite.","verdict":"Advance: ESA's INTEGRAL (2002) studied gamma rays for more than two decades.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/INTEGRAL","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50021"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_integral_50021"},{"id":"w_smart_1_213498","name":"SMART-1","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"European Space Agency satellite that orbited around the Moon. Europe SMART-1 Moon Success SMART-1 orbiter","verdict":"Advance: ESA's SMART-1 (2003) reached the Moon on solar-electric propulsion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SMART-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213498"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_smart_1_213498"},{"id":"w_mars_express_205672","name":"Mars Express","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"European Mars orbiter. Mars Express & Beagle 2 Mars Partial success Mars Express orbiter (successfully reached orbit) and failed Beagle 2 lander","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Mars Express (2003) found methane traces and subsurface water ice.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Express","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205672"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_express_205672"},{"id":"w_spirit_176276","name":"Spirit","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former NASA Mars rover. Mars Exploration Rover Mars Success Mars Exploration Rovers successful launches, Spirit successfully landed, Opportunity successfully landed","verdict":"Advance: Spirit (2004) found evidence of past hydrothermal activity on Mars, operating for six years.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spirit_(rover)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_spirit_176276"},{"id":"w_messenger_182539","name":"MESSENGER","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Seventh mission of the Discovery program; orbital reconnaissance of the planet Mercury (2004–2015). MESSENGER Mercury Success MESSENGER orbiter launched (in Mercury orbit)","verdict":"Advance: MESSENGER (2004) became the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury, finding ice in polar craters.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MESSENGER","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182539"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_messenger_182539"},{"id":"w_tempel_1_334755","name":"Deep Impact (comet Tempel 1)","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Short-period comet. First spacecraft to impact a comet ( Tempel 1 ). USA (NASA) Deep Impact","verdict":"Advance: Deep Impact (2005) struck comet Tempel 1, revealing its interior composition.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tempel_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334755"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tempel_1_334755"},{"id":"w_suzaku_54375","name":"Suzaku","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned Japanese X-ray astronomy satellite. Suzaku Earth Partial success Launch of the Suzaku X-ray observatory ( ASTRO-EII )","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Suzaku (2005) studied X-ray sources despite an early instrument failure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Suzaku_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54375"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_suzaku_54375"},{"id":"w_mars_reconnaissance_orbiter_183160","name":"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA space probe in orbit of Mars. MRO Mars Success Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: MRO (2005) has imaged Mars at high resolution and relayed rover data.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183160"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_reconnaissance_orbiter_183160"},{"id":"w_sina_1_2288750","name":"Sina-1","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Iranian satellite. Sinah-1 Earth Success Sinah-1 launched, first Iranian-built satellite","verdict":"Advance: Iran's Sina-1 (2005) was launched on a Russian rocket, Iran's first satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sina-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2288750"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sina_1_2288750"},{"id":"w_venus_express_210889","name":"Venus Express","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"ESA spacecraft which orbited Venus. Venus Express Venus Success Venus Express","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Venus Express (2005) studied Venus's atmosphere and possible volcanism.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venus_Express","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210889"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_venus_express_210889"},{"id":"w_new_horizons_48461","name":"New Horizons","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA probe that visited Pluto and Kuiper belt object 486958 Arrokoth. US New Horizons Pluto Success New Horizons launched. On July 14, 2015, New Horizons flew within 7,750 miles (12,472 km) of Pluto.","verdict":"Advance: New Horizons (2006) flew past Pluto in 2015 and Arrokoth in 2019.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/New_Horizons","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48461"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_new_horizons_48461"},{"id":"w_akari_298047","name":"Akari","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Infrared astronomy satellite developed by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Akari Earth Success Launch of the Akari infrared observatory ( ASTRO-F )","verdict":"Advance: Japanese infrared sky survey satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akari_%28space_telescope%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q298047"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_akari_298047"},{"id":"w_selene_205408","name":"SELENE","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former Japanese lunar orbiter spacecraft. SELENE Moon Success SELENE orbiter and lander","verdict":"Advance: Japan's SELENE/Kaguya (2007) mapped the Moon in high-definition imagery.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SELENE","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205408"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_selene_205408"},{"id":"w_dawn_48558","name":"Dawn","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA space probe exploring Vesta and Ceres. Dawn Vesta/Ceres Success Dawn solar powered ion engined probe to 4 Vesta and 1 Ceres.","verdict":"Advance: Dawn (2007) orbited Vesta and Ceres with ion engines, the first craft to orbit two bodies.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dawn_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_dawn_48558"},{"id":"w_chang_e_1_49044","name":"Chang'e 1","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese lunar orbiter. Chang'e-I Moon Success Chang'e-I lunar orbiter","verdict":"Advance: China's Chang'e 1 (2007) began its lunar program, mapping the Moon in 3D.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chang'e_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49044"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chang_e_1_49044"},{"id":"w_nigcomsat_1_1788851","name":"NigComSat-1","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Communication satellite in Nigeria. NigComSat-1 Earth Partial success NigComSat-1 launched by China, failed after 1 year","verdict":"Advance: NigComSat-1 (2007), built and launched by China, failed in orbit after 18 months.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NigComSat-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1788851"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nigcomsat_1_1788851"},{"id":"w_interstellar_boundary_explorer_835898","name":"Interstellar Boundary Explorer","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA satellite. IBEX Earth Success The Interstellar Boundary Explorer ( IBEX )'s mission is to study the nature of interactions between solar wind and interstellar medium at the edge of Solar System.","verdict":"Advance: IBEX (2008) mapped the boundary of the heliosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interstellar_Boundary_Explorer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q835898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_interstellar_boundary_explorer_835898"},{"id":"w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_2_714770","name":"Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"North Korean satellite, lost in a launch failure. North Korea Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 Earth Failure Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 failed to orbit, possibly due to the rocket's third stage not separating properly.","verdict":"Advance: North Korea's Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 (2009) failed to reach orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwangmy%C5%8Fngs%C5%8Fng-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q714770"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_2_714770"},{"id":"w_planck_725309","name":"Planck","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Former ESA space observatory. Planck L2 Success Planck","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Planck (2009) mapped the cosmic microwave background in finer detail.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planck_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725309"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_planck_725309"},{"id":"w_herschel_space_observatory_209630","name":"Herschel Space Observatory","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former ESA space observatory. Herschel L2 Success Herschel Space Observatory","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Herschel (2009) studied star formation in far infrared.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Herschel_Space_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209630"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_herschel_space_observatory_209630"},{"id":"w_omid_639824","name":"Omid","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Communications satellite. Omid Earth Success Omid launched by Iranian made launcher Safir. First Iranian-launched satellite","verdict":"Advance: Iran's Omid (2009) was its first satellite on a domestic rocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Omid","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q639824"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_omid_639824"},{"id":"w_proba_2_742155","name":"PROBA-2","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"ESA technology demonstration satellite. PROBA-2 Earth Success PROBA-2 Small satellite to observe the Sun","verdict":"Advance: ESA's PROBA-2 (2009) monitored the Sun with miniaturized instruments.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q742155"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_proba_2_742155"},{"id":"w_risat_2_1549353","name":"RISAT-2","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Indian radar-imaging reconnaissance satellite, reentered in 2022. RISAT-2 Earth Success RISAT-2 developed by Israel Aerospace Industries, launched by ISRO, India","verdict":"Advance: India's RISAT-2 (2009) provided radar imaging for surveillance.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RISAT-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1549353"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_risat_2_1549353"},{"id":"w_chandrayaan_1_49011","name":"Chandrayaan-1","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"India's first lunar exploration mission. Chandrayaan-1 Moon Success Chandrayaan-1 developed and launched by ISRO, India. First discovery of Lunar Water.","verdict":"Advance: India's Chandrayaan-1 (2008) detected water on the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chandrayaan-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49011"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chandrayaan_1_49011"},{"id":"w_akatsuki_416448","name":"Akatsuki","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Defunct Venus orbiter operated by JAXA. Japan Akatsuki Venus Partial success Akatsuki orbiter, first Japanese spacecraft to orbit another planet (2015)","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Venus climate orbiter; recovered after a missed first orbit insertion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Akatsuki_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q416448"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_akatsuki_416448"},{"id":"w_ikaros_609059","name":"IKAROS","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Uncrewed Japanese experimental solar sail space probe. Japan IKAROS Venus Success IKAROS, first solar-sail spacecraft","verdict":"Advance: Japan's IKAROS (2010) was the first solar sail in interplanetary space.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IKAROS","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q609059"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ikaros_609059"},{"id":"w_chang_e_2_831345","name":"Chang'e 2","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese Moon orbiter. Chang'e-2 Moon Success Chang'e-2 lunar orbiter/impacter","verdict":"Advance: China's Chang'e 2 (2010) mapped the Moon and later flew past asteroid Toutatis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chang'e_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831345"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chang_e_2_831345"},{"id":"w_spektr_r_837749","name":"Spektr-R","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Russian radio astronomy satellite. Spektr-R Earth Success Launch of the Spektr-R radio telescope","verdict":"Advance: Russia's Spektr-R (2011) formed a radio interferometer extending from Earth.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spektr-R","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837749"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_spektr_r_837749"},{"id":"w_juno_48546","name":"Juno","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA spacecraft orbiting the planet Jupiter. Juno Jupiter Success Juno","verdict":"Advance: Juno (2011) has orbited Jupiter since 2016, mapping its deep interior and auroras.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Juno_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48546"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_juno_48546"},{"id":"w_fobos_grunt_210020","name":"Fobos-Grunt","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former Russian spacecraft. Fobos-Grunt Mars Failure Fobos-Grunt lander and sample return","verdict":"Advance: Russia's Fobos-Grunt (2011) was stranded in Earth orbit, a setback for Russian planetary science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fobos-Grunt","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210020"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fobos_grunt_210020"},{"id":"w_st_2_2207982","name":"ST-2","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Telecommunications satellite in geosynchronous orbit, launched in 2011. ST-2 Earth Success ST-2 replacement launched by Taiwan and Singapore","verdict":"Advance: ST-2 (2011), a Singapore–Taiwan venture, provides regional satellite communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ST-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2207982"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_st_2_2207982"},{"id":"w_sac_d_1886982","name":"SAC-D","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S-Argentinian satellite. SAC-D Earth Success SAC-D Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: SAC-D/Aquarius (2011), a US–Argentine mission, measured global ocean salinity.","dependencies":[],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAC-D","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1886982"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sac_d_1886982"},{"id":"w_navid_1972368","name":"Navid","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Iranian Earth observation satellite. Iran Navid Earth Success Navid Earth-watching satellite","verdict":"Advance: Iran's Navid (2012) was a small Earth-imaging satellite on a domestic Safir rocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navid_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1972368"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_navid_1972368"},{"id":"w_mars_science_laboratory_48496","name":"Mars Science Laboratory","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mars mission by NASA, with rover named \"Curiosity\". MSL Mars Success Mars Science Laboratory with Curiosity rover—orbit and landed","verdict":"Advance: Curiosity (landed 2012) found that Gale Crater once held a habitable lake, and is still roving.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Science_Laboratory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48496"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_science_laboratory_48496"},{"id":"w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_3_unit_2_862204","name":"Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"North Korean Earth observation satellite; first satellite orbited by North Korea. Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Earth Success Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2, first successful North Korean orbital rocket launch after the first unit exploded shortly after launch.","verdict":"Advance: North Korea's Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2 (2012) was its first satellite to reach orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kwangmy%C5%8Fngs%C5%8Fng-3_Unit_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862204"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kwangmy_ngs_ng_3_unit_2_862204"},{"id":"w_pw_sat_856632","name":"PW-Sat","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Satellite. PW-Sat Earth Success PW-Sat, first Polish satellite","verdict":"Advance: Poland's PW-Sat (2012) was its first satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PW-Sat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q856632"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pw_sat_856632"},{"id":"w_stsat_2c_3912898","name":"STSAT-2C","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"South Korean satellite. South Korea STSAT-2C Earth Success STSAT-2C, first successful South Korean orbital rocket launch","verdict":"Advance: STSAT-2C (2013) reached orbit on Naro-1, South Korea's first successful launch from home soil.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STSat-2C","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3912898"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_stsat_2c_3912898"},{"id":"w_near_earth_object_surveillance_satellite_840936","name":"Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Asteroid monitoring microsatellite from Canada. NEOSSat Earth Success NEOSSat, monitoring near-Earth objects","verdict":"Advance: Canada's NEOSSat (2013) is a microsatellite tracking near-Earth asteroids.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_Earth_Object_Surveillance_Satellite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840936"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_near_earth_object_surveillance_satellite_840936"},{"id":"w_nee_01_pegaso_924851","name":"NEE-01 Pegaso","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ecuadorian satellite. NEE 01 Pegaso Earth Success NEE-01 Pegaso, Ecuador's first satellite","verdict":"Advance: Ecuador's NEE-01 Pegaso (2013) was its first satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEE-01_Pegaso","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q924851"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nee_01_pegaso_924851"},{"id":"w_estcube_1_3200445","name":"ESTCube-1","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Estonian nanosatellite. ESTCube-1 Earth Success ESTCube-1, Estonia's first satellite","verdict":"Advance: Estonia's ESTCube-1 (2013) tested an electric solar wind sail.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESTCube-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3200445"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_estcube_1_3200445"},{"id":"w_proba_v_3359841","name":"PROBA-V","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"ESA Earth observation satellite. PROBA-V Earth Success PROBA-V, small satellite to monitor the vegetation of the Earth","verdict":"Advance: ESA's PROBA-V (2013) monitors vegetation globally.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-V","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3359841"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_proba_v_3359841"},{"id":"w_strand_1_6116306","name":"STRaND-1","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nanosatellite. STRaND-1 Earth Success STRaND-1, first smartphone-operated satellite to be launched and dubbed the world's first \"phonesat\"","verdict":"Advance: Surrey's STRaND-1 (2013) ran a satellite on a smartphone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STRaND-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6116306"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_strand_1_6116306"},{"id":"w_hisaki_3459972","name":"Hisaki","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned Japanese ultraviolet astronomy satellite. Hisaki Earth Success Hisaki planetary atmosphere observatory","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Hisaki (2013) observed planetary atmospheres in extreme ultraviolet.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisaki_%28satellite%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3459972"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hisaki_3459972"},{"id":"w_cassiope_1022873","name":"CASSIOPE","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Canadian Space Agency multi-mission satellite. CASSIOPE Earth Success CASSIOPE, ionosphere research and communication satellite","verdict":"Advance: Canada's CASSIOPE (2013) combined ionospheric science with communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CASSIOPE","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1022873"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_cassiope_1022873"},{"id":"w_mars_orbiter_mission_2156739","name":"Mars Orbiter Mission","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Indian Mars orbiter (2013-2022). MOM Mars Success MOM is India's first interplanetary mission to Mars. First Asian nation to reach Mars.","verdict":"Advance: India's Mangalyaan (2013) reached Mars orbit first try at a cost of about $74 million.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_Orbiter_Mission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2156739"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_orbiter_mission_2156739"},{"id":"w_maven_327075","name":"MAVEN","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Former NASA Mars orbiter. MAVEN Mars Success MAVEN orbiter","verdict":"Advance: MAVEN (2013) showed how Mars lost most of its atmosphere to the solar wind.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MAVEN","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q327075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_maven_327075"},{"id":"w_litsat_1_15614929","name":"LitSat-1","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lithuanian satellite, launched 2014. Lithuania LitSat1/LituanicaSAT-1 Earth Success LitSat-1 and LituanicaSAT-1, first Lithuanian satellites","verdict":"Advance: LituanicaSAT-1 and LitSat-1 (2014) were Lithuania's first satellites.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LitSat-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15614929"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_litsat_1_15614929"},{"id":"w_t_rksat_4a_3462663","name":"Türksat 4A","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turkish communications satellite. TÜRKSAT 4A Earth Success TÜRKSAT 4A, Turkey's fifth communication satellite.","verdict":"Advance: Türksat 4A (2014) expanded Turkey's satellite communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_4A","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3462663"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_t_rksat_4a_3462663"},{"id":"w_astrosat_298058","name":"Astrosat","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Indian space observatory. Astrosat Earth Success Astrosat, Space observatory","verdict":"Advance: India's first space observatory.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AstroSat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q298058"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_astrosat_298058"},{"id":"w_osiris_rex_604428","name":"OSIRIS-REx","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA sample return mission, launched in 2016. OSIRIS-REx Earth En route OSIRIS-REx, first American asteroid sample return spacecraft","verdict":"Advance: OSIRIS-REx returned 121 g of asteroid Bennu to Earth in 2023, NASA's first asteroid sample.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/OSIRIS-REx","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q604428"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_osiris_rex_604428"},{"id":"w_brazilian_space_program_4958918","name":"Brazilian space program","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Space program of the Federative Republic of Brazil. Brazil SGDC-1 Earth Success SGDC-1, communication satellite","verdict":"Advance: Brazil's SGDC-1 (2017) gave secure communications and rural broadband to the country.","dependencies":[],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_space_program","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4958918"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_brazilian_space_program_4958918"},{"id":"w_elon_musk_s_tesla_roadster_46845259","name":"Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sports car launched into space in 2018. US Tesla Roadster Heliocentric orbit Success Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster, dummy payload for the February 2018 Falcon Heavy test flight and is now an artificial satellite of the Sun","verdict":"Advance: A publicity payload on Falcon Heavy's first flight; a showcase of reusable heavy lift.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Elon_Musk's_Tesla_Roadster","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46845259"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_elon_musk_s_tesla_roadster_46845259"},{"id":"w_queqiao_1_53829976","name":"Queqiao-1","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese lunar orbiter and radio relay satellite launched in 2018. Queqiao Moon Success First relay satellite for far side of the Moon.","verdict":"Advance: China's Queqiao (2018) relayed signals from the Moon's far side, enabling Chang'e 4's landing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queqiao-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q53829976"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_queqiao_1_53829976"},{"id":"w_insight_1660590","name":"InSight","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robotic lander on Mars. InSight Mars Success InSight, Mars lander for planetary information","verdict":"Advance: InSight (2018) detected more than 1,300 marsquakes, revealing Mars's core size.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/InSight","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1660590"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_insight_1660590"},{"id":"w_bepicolombo_113169","name":"BepiColombo","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"ESA uncrewed space mission to Mercury. BepiColombo Mercury En route BepiColombo, two orbiters to study the magnetic field, magnetosphere, and both interior and surface structure of Mercury. Final mission of the Horizon 2000+ programme","verdict":"Advance: ESA–JAXA BepiColombo (2018) is on a gravity-assist path to orbit Mercury in 2026.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BepiColombo","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113169"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bepicolombo_113169"},{"id":"w_parker_solar_probe_899091","name":"Parker Solar Probe","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA robotic space probe to probe the outer corona of the Sun. Parker Solar Probe Sun En route Parker Solar Probe, first spacecraft to visit the outer corona of the Sun","verdict":"Advance: Parker Solar Probe (2018) flew within 6.1 million km of the Sun in 2024, the fastest human-made object.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parker_Solar_Probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899091"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_parker_solar_probe_899091"},{"id":"w_chang_e_4_723045","name":"Chang'e 4","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese lunar lander. Chang'e 4 Moon Success Chang'e 4, first spacecraft to soft-land on the lunar far side.","verdict":"Advance: First soft landing on the far side of the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chang'e_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q723045"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chang_e_4_723045"},{"id":"w_beresheet_61742389","name":"Beresheet","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Israeli space probe which failed to land on the Moon in 2019. Beresheet Moon Failure Beresheet, first private space probe and moon lander, crashed","verdict":"Advance: First privately funded lunar lander attempt; it crashed, but opened private lunar exploration.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Beresheet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61742389"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_beresheet_61742389"},{"id":"w_chandrayaan_2_325065","name":"Chandrayaan-2","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"India's second lunar exploration mission. Chandrayaan-2 Moon Partial success Chandrayaan-2, orbiter achieved orbit, but lander and rover module hit into the Moon's surface and crashed.","verdict":"Advance: India's Chandrayaan-2 (2019) orbiter succeeded though its Vikram lander crashed.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chandrayaan-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q325065"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chandrayaan_2_325065"},{"id":"w_solar_orbiter_653731","name":"Solar Orbiter","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"ESA solar probe. SolO Sun En route Solar Orbiter is an ESA's Sun-observing satellite.","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Solar Orbiter (2020) took the first images of the Sun's poles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solar_Orbiter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653731"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_solar_orbiter_653731"},{"id":"w_mars_2020_1526343","name":"Mars 2020","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mars mission by NASA, with rover named \"Perseverance\" and helicopter named \"Ingenuity\". Mars 2020 Mars Operational Perseverance, JPL's Mars rover. It was launched on July 30 with Atlas V rocket, and landed on February 18, 2021, together with the small Ingenuity helicopter that was deployed on April 4, 2021.","verdict":"Advance: Perseverance (2021) caches Mars samples and its Ingenuity helicopter made the first powered flight on another planet.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_2020","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1526343"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_2020_1526343"},{"id":"w_mars_hope_21027958","name":"Mars Hope","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space exploration probe mission to Mars. Hope Mars Success Hope satellite is the United Arab Emirates Space Agency's uncrewed space research project on Mars. It was launched with Japanese H-IIA rocket on 19 July and reached Mars on 9 February 2021.","verdict":"Advance: The UAE's Hope orbiter (2021) studies Mars's weather, the first Arab interplanetary mission.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Emirates_Mars_Mission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21027958"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_hope_21027958"},{"id":"w_tianwen_1_23580572","name":"Tianwen-1","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese Mars probe with an orbiter, lander and rover. Tianwen-1 Mars Success Mission containing an orbiter, deployable and remote cameras, lander and Zhurong rover. This is China's 2nd uncrewed space research project on Mars.","verdict":"Advance: China's Tianwen-1 (2020) orbited, landed and roved on Mars in a single mission, a first.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tianwen-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23580572"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tianwen_1_23580572"},{"id":"w_lucy_21076293","name":"Lucy","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thirteenth mission of the Discovery program; multiple-flyby reconnaissance of five Jupiter trojans.","verdict":"Advance: Lucy's 2023 flyby of Dinkinesh discovered a contact-binary moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lucy_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21076293"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lucy_21076293"},{"id":"w_amaz_nia_1_4740919","name":"Amazônia 1","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Earth observation satellite of Brazil. Amazônia-1 Earth Success Amazônia-1 is the first Earth observation satellite developed by Brazil, helped by Argentina's INVAP, who provided the main computer, attitude controls and sensors, and the training of Brazilian engineers, and la…","verdict":"Advance: Brazil's first domestically built Earth observation satellite.","dependencies":[],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaz%C3%B4nia-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4740919"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_amaz_nia_1_4740919"},{"id":"w_double_asteroid_redirection_test_47482008","name":"Double Asteroid Redirection Test","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First mission in NASA's Solar System Exploration program; impact of asteroid Dimorphos in 65803 Didymos system. DART a Binary 65803 Didymos asteroid system Success Double Asteroid Redirection Test, NASA's first mission to test planetary defense.","verdict":"Advance: The first test of deflecting an asteroid; DART shifted Dimorphos's orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47482008","https://grokipedia.com/page/Dimorphos","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25387442"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_double_asteroid_redirection_test_47482008"},{"id":"w_liciacube_109650148","name":"LICIACube","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned Italian CubeSat in NASA's DART mission. LICIACube a Binary 65803 Didymos asteroid system Success LICIACube, Light Italian Cubesat for Imaging of Asteroids, is the first Agenzia Spaziale Italiana 's interplanetary mission.","verdict":"Advance: Italy's LICIACube (2022) photographed DART's impact on Dimorphos.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LICIACube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q109650148"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_liciacube_109650148"},{"id":"w_imaging_x_ray_polarimetry_explorer_30750693","name":"Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA/ASI space observatory to study cosmic X-rays. IXPE Earth Success Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer, NASA's new X-ray observatory. It was launched on December 8 with Falcon 9 rocket.","verdict":"Advance: IXPE (2021) measures X-ray polarization to study black holes.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IXPE","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30750693"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_imaging_x_ray_polarimetry_explorer_30750693"},{"id":"w_james_webb_space_telescope_186447","name":"James Webb Space Telescope","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"NASA/ESA/CSA space infrared telescope launched in 2021. James Webb Space Telescope Earth-Sun L 2 point Success James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), NASA, ESA and CSA 's joint project for a space telescope. It was launched on December 25 with Ariane 5 ECA rocket to Earth-Moon L 2 point.","verdict":"Advance: infrared eyes on the first galaxies (launched Dec 2021).","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/James_Webb_Space_Telescope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186447"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_james_webb_space_telescope_186447"},{"id":"w_capstone_85160256","name":"CAPSTONE","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA satellite to test and verify the calculated orbital stability planned for Lunar Gateway. US CAPSTONE Near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) of Moon Operational CAPSTONE, Lunar orbiting CubeSat that will test and verify the calculated orbital stability planned for the Gateway space station.","verdict":"Advance: CAPSTONE (2022) tested the near-rectilinear halo orbit planned for Gateway.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CAPSTONE","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q85160256"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_capstone_85160256"},{"id":"w_korea_pathfinder_lunar_orbiter_30749609","name":"Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"South Korean lunar orbiter. Danuri (KLPO) Moon Operational South Korea's first lunar orbiter launched by SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket. Danuri will serve to create topographic map of the lunar surface to pinpoint future landing sites.","verdict":"Advance: South Korea's Danuri (2022) became its first lunar orbiter.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Danuri","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30749609"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_korea_pathfinder_lunar_orbiter_30749609"},{"id":"w_artemis_i_3389152","name":"Artemis I","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Uncrewed spaceflight; first flight in the Artemis program, and first flight of NASA's SLS rocket. Artemis 1 Orion MPCV CM-002 Moon Success Uncrewed test of the Orion spacecraft in lunar flyby and DRO orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Uncrewed test flight around the Moon; the return to the Moon began.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_I","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3389152"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_artemis_i_3389152"},{"id":"w_infrared_spectroscopy_70906","name":"Infrared spectroscopy","year":1905,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Involves the interaction of infrared radiation with matter. Moon Partial failure Collect its surface thermography.","verdict":"Advance: William Coblentz's 1905 infrared spectra founded IR spectroscopy, now used on JWST and lunar orbiters.","dependencies":["w_spectroscopy_483666"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Infrared_spectroscopy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q70906"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_infrared_spectroscopy_70906"},{"id":"w_plasma_propulsion_engine_15237980","name":"Plasma propulsion engine","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric propulsion method for spacecraft. Heliocentric Failure Demonstrate low-thrust plasma propulsion in deep space.","verdict":"Advance: Plasma propulsion offers higher efficiency, though many early demonstrators failed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plasma_propulsion_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15237980"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_plasma_propulsion_engine_15237980"},{"id":"w_argomoon_29588593","name":"ArgoMoon","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Italian CubeSat. ArgoMoon High Earth Orbit with Lunar Flybys Success Image the ICPS and perform deep space Nanotechnology experiments.","verdict":"Advance: Italian CubeSat that imaged Artemis I deep space operations.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArgoMoon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29588593"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_argomoon_29588593"},{"id":"w_omotenashi_48799723","name":"OMOTENASHI","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small spacecraft and semi-hard lander of the 6U CubeSat format. OMOTENASHI Moon Failure Inflatable module attempting to land semi-hard at lunar surface.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's OMOTENASHI (2022) failed a CubeSat lunar landing attempt.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/OMOTENASHI","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48799723"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_omotenashi_48799723"},{"id":"w_lunar_flashlight_21028130","name":"Lunar Flashlight","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA small satellite which was planned to orbit the Moon. Lunar Flashlight Moon Failure Lunar Flashlight, Lunar orbiting CubeSat that will explore, locate, and estimate size and composition of water ice deposits on the Moon for future exploitation by robots or humans.","verdict":"Advance: NASA's Lunar Flashlight (2022) failed to reach lunar orbit because of thruster problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lunar_Flashlight","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21028130"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lunar_flashlight_21028130"},{"id":"w_euclid_578497","name":"Euclid","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"ESA space telescope aimed at mapping the distribution of dark matter. Euclid Earth-Sun L 2 point Operational It is ESA 's project for a space telescope to study dark matter. It was launched on July 1 with Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket to Earth-Moon L 2 point.","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Euclid (2023) maps dark matter and dark energy across billions of galaxies.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid_%28space_telescope%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q578497"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_euclid_578497"},{"id":"w_chandrayaan_3_65049774","name":"Chandrayaan-3","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"India's third lunar exploration mission. Chandrayaan-3 Moon Success It is India's second attempt to land on the Moon and its south pole. Successfully launched on 14 July 2023 on a LVM3 launch vehicle. Successfully landed on 23 August 2023.","verdict":"Advance: India's first landing near the lunar south pole.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chandrayaan-3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65049774"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chandrayaan_3_65049774"},{"id":"w_aditya_l1_2824476","name":"Aditya-L1","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Indian solar probe. Aditya-L1 Earth-Sun L 1 point Operational It is ISRO 's first Sun dedicated scientific mission. It will perform observations of the Solar corona. Successfully launched on 2 September 2023 on a PSLV-XL rocket.","verdict":"Advance: India's first solar observatory at the L1 point.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aditya-L1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2824476"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_aditya_l1_2824476"},{"id":"w_x_ray_imaging_and_spectroscopy_mission_39053896","name":"X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese X-ray space telescope. XRISM Earth Operational X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission, X-ray space telescope developed by JAXA in partnership with NASA. Successfully launched on 6 September 2023 on a H-IIA launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: JAXA's XRISM (2023) studies hot gas with high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/X-Ray_Imaging_and_Spectroscopy_Mission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39053896"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_x_ray_imaging_and_spectroscopy_mission_39053896"},{"id":"w_psyche_21079313","name":"Psyche","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA spacecraft en route to metallic asteroid 16 Psyche. Psyche 16 Psyche En route Asteroid orbiter developed by NASA. Successfully launched on 13 October 2023 on a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: Psyche (2023) heads to a metal-rich asteroid, possibly a planetary core.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Psyche_(spacecraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21079313"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_psyche_21079313"},{"id":"w_xposat_63992302","name":"XPoSat","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Indian space telescope. India XPoSat Earth Operational ISRO 's mission to study X-ray polarisation. Successfully launched on 1 January 2024 on a PSLV-DL launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: India's XPoSat (2024) studies X-ray polarization.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/XPoSat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63992302"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_xposat_63992302"},{"id":"w_peregrine_mission_one_111708523","name":"Peregrine Mission One","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former commercial lunar landing mission. Peregrine Mission One Moon Failure Lunar lander developed by Astrobotic Technology and selected as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services.","verdict":"Advance: Astrobotic's Peregrine (2024) suffered a propellant leak and burned up over the Pacific.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Peregrine_Mission_One","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q111708523"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_peregrine_mission_one_111708523"},{"id":"w_einstein_probe_30765887","name":"Einstein Probe","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese X-ray astronomy satellite. Einstein Probe Earth Operational X-ray space telescope developed jointly by CAS and ESA. Successfully launched on 9 January 2024 on a Long March 2C launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: China's Einstein Probe (2024) monitors transient X-ray sources across a wide field.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Einstein_Probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30765887"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_einstein_probe_30765887"},{"id":"w_nova_c_60760134","name":"Nova-C","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Model of lunar lander developed by Intuitive Machines. IM-1 Moon Success Cryogenic - propelled lunar lander developed by Intuitive Machines and selected as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services.","verdict":"Advance: Intuitive Machines' IM-1 (2024) was the first commercial lunar landing, though it tipped over.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intuitive_Machines_Nova-C","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60760134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nova_c_60760134"},{"id":"w_yuanzheng_20871633","name":"Yuanzheng","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of Chinese launch vehicle upper stages. DRO A/B Moon Success Yuanzheng 1S upper stage failed to deliver spacecraft into correct orbit. The satellites were intended to test Distant retrograde orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Yuanzheng restartable upper stages let Chinese rockets deliver multiple satellites directly to final orbits.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanzheng","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20871633"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_yuanzheng_20871633"},{"id":"w_queqiao_2_108030509","name":"Queqiao-2","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese lunar orbiter and radio relay satellite launched in 2024. Queqiao-2 Moon Success Queqiao-2 relay satellite for far side of the Moon with Tiandu-1 and 2 to test future lunar satellite constellation technologies.","verdict":"Advance: China's Queqiao-2 (2024) relayed communications for Chang'e 6's far-side sample return.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queqiao-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108030509"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_queqiao_2_108030509"},{"id":"w_chang_e_6_18346001","name":"Chang'e 6","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese uncrewed lunar expedition. Chang'e 6 Moon Success Orbiter, Returner, Ascent Stage, Lander, Rover configuration mission, China's first automated return of samples from the far side of the Moon. orbiter visited L2.","verdict":"Advance: First samples returned from the lunar far side.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chang'e_6","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18346001"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_chang_e_6_18346001"},{"id":"w_space_variable_objects_monitor_16677669","name":"Space Variable Objects Monitor","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"French-Chinese small X-ray telescope satellite. Space Variable Objects Monitor Earth Operational X-ray space telescope developed jointly by CNES and CNSA. Successfully launched on 22 June 2024 on a Long March 2C launch vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: The French–Chinese SVOM (2024) detects gamma-ray bursts.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Variable_Objects_Monitor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16677669"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_space_variable_objects_monitor_16677669"},{"id":"w_hera_60965184","name":"Hera","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"ESA spacecraft which will study the effects of the DART Impactor on the asteroid moon Dimorphos.","verdict":"Advance: ESA's Hera (2024) will study Dimorphos after DART's impact, to refine planetary defence.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hera_(space_mission)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60965184"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hera_60965184"},{"id":"w_europa_clipper_15637513","name":"Europa Clipper","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA space mission en route to Jupiter and Europa. Europa Clipper Jupiter and Europa En route NASA launched the Europa Clipper on 14 October 2024 on a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle, which will study the Jovian moon Europa while in orbit around Jupiter.","verdict":"Advance: Europa Clipper (2024) will study Europa's ocean beneath its ice.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Europa_Clipper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15637513"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_europa_clipper_15637513"},{"id":"w_proba_3_6564102","name":"PROBA-3","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"ESA formation-flying satellite mission. PROBA-3 Earth Operational solar Coronagraph and Occulter dual satellites developed by ESA. Successfully launched on 5 December 2024 on a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: ESA's PROBA-3 (2024) flies two satellites in formation to create an artificial solar eclipse.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6564102"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_proba_3_6564102"},{"id":"w_311p_panstarrs_15138364","name":"311P/PanSTARRS","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Comet. Tianwen-2 469219 Kamoʻoalewa and 311P/PANSTARRS En route Tianwen-2 asteroid orbiter, lander and sample return. Launched on a Long March 3B launch vehicle on 29 May 2025.","verdict":"Advance: Comet target of China's Tianwen-2 sample-return mission.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/311P/PanSTARRS","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15138364"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_311p_panstarrs_15138364"},{"id":"w_interstellar_mapping_and_acceleration_pr_54996490","name":"Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe","year":2025,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"NASA heliophysics satellite. Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe Earth-Sun L 1 point Operational It is NASA 's heliophysics mission that simultaneously investigates two important and coupled science topics in the heliosphere: the acceleration of energetic p…","verdict":"Advance: NASA's IMAP (2025) maps the heliosphere's boundary from L1.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interstellar_Mapping_and_Acceleration_Probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54996490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_interstellar_mapping_and_acceleration_pr_54996490"},{"id":"w_centrifuge_191134","name":"Centrifuge","year":1864,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Device for rotating containers about a fixed axis and separating materials in said containers by mass inertia. 1864 – Antonin Prandtl [ wikidata ] invents first centrifuge to separate cream from milk.","verdict":"Advance: Antonin Prandtl's 1864 dairy centrifuge separated cream, a principle now used to isolate DNA and uranium.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Centrifuge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_centrifuge_191134"},{"id":"w_living_building_material_85781791","name":"Living building material","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Construction material. 1974 – Scientists invent the first biocement for industrial applications.","verdict":"Advance: Bacteria that precipitate calcite can cement sand and self-heal concrete cracks, a lower-carbon construction approach.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Living_building_material","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q85781791"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_living_building_material_85781791"},{"id":"w_flavr_savr_1427580","name":"Flavr Savr","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vegetable. 1994 – The United States Food and Drug Administration approves the first GM food: the \" Flavr Savr \" tomato.","verdict":"Advance: Calgene's Flavr Savr (1994) was the first GM food approved for sale; it flopped commercially but opened the regulatory path for later GM crops.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flavr_Savr","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1427580"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_flavr_savr_1427580"},{"id":"w_kibo_506609","name":"Kibo","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Japanese module of the International Space Station. 2008 – Japanese astronomers launch the first Medical Experiment Module called \"Kibō\", to be used on the International Space Station.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Kibo (2008) is the ISS's largest laboratory module.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kib%C5%8D_(ISS_module)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506609"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kibo_506609"},{"id":"w_covid_19_test_86901049","name":"COVID-19 test","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Diagnostic testing for the respiratory illness COVID-19 and the underlying pathogen SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus.","verdict":"Advance: SARS-CoV-2 PCR and later cheap rapid antigen tests scaled to billions of tests in 2020–21, letting societies track and contain spread.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/COVID-19_testing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q86901049"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_covid_19_test_86901049"},{"id":"w_biobased_economy_3232188","name":"Biobased economy","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Economic activity derived from scientific and research activity focused on biotechnology. Researchers report the world's first artificial synthesis of starch.","verdict":"Advance: The bioeconomy aims to replace petrochemicals with engineered microbes and biomass, an industrial shift still largely at pilot scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bioeconomy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3232188"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_biobased_economy_3232188"},{"id":"w_rts_s_7277881","name":"RTS,S","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Malaria vaccine. The World Health Organization endorses the first malaria vaccine – the antiparasitic RTS,S.","verdict":"Advance: GSK's RTS,S, developed from 1987, became in 2021 the first WHO-recommended malaria vaccine, cutting severe malaria in African children by about 30%.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RTS,S","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7277881"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rts_s_7277881"},{"id":"w_chewing_gum_130878","name":"Chewing gum","year":1848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soft, cohesive substance intended for chewing but not swallowing. Researchers report the development of chewing gums that could mitigate COVID-19 spread. The ingredients – CTB - ACE2 proteins grown via plants – bind to the virus.","verdict":"Advance: Researchers in 2021–22 developed chewing gums that trap SARS-CoV-2 or deliver drugs, an old confection turned into a delivery vehicle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chewing_gum","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130878"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_chewing_gum_130878"},{"id":"w_pesticide_131656","name":"Pesticide","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Substance used to destroy pests. Sri Lanka announces that it will lift its import ban on pesticides and herbicides, explained by both a lack of sudden changes to widely applied practices or education systems and contemporary economics and, by extension, food security, p…","verdict":"Advance: Paul Müller's 1939 DDT findings started the synthetic-pesticide era, saving crops and stopping malaria and typhus, while Silent Spring (1962) forced regulation of its ecological harm.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pesticide","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pesticide_131656"},{"id":"w_xenobot_82309052","name":"Xenobot","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First living, self-healing robot. A team of scientists reports a new form of biological reproduction in the, <1 mm sized, xenobots that are made up of and are emersed in frog cells.","verdict":"Advance: Xenobots, assembled from frog cells in 2020–21, move, heal and replicate kinematically, the first living machines designed by computer.","dependencies":["w_self_replicating_machine_691243"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Xenobot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82309052"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_xenobot_82309052"},{"id":"w_cerebral_organoid_17083207","name":"Cerebral organoid","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Artificially grown miniature organ resembling the brain. Scientists demonstrate that grown brain cells integrated into digital systems can carry out goal-directed tasks with performance-scores.","verdict":"Advance: Lab-grown brain organoids that wire into rat brains (2022) give a window on human neural development and disease, though they raise ethical questions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_organoid","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17083207"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cerebral_organoid_17083207"},{"id":"w_biosensor_669391","name":"Biosensor","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Probe which tests for biological molecules. Scientists report the development of sensors to gather and identify DNA of animals from air (airborne eDNA).","verdict":"Advance: Biosensors such as the glucose meter turn molecular binding into electrical signals, enabling continuous health monitoring and field diagnostics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Biosensor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q669391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_biosensor_669391"},{"id":"w_human_genome_720988","name":"Complete human genome (telomere-to-telomere)","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Complete set of nucleic acid sequence for humans. Publication of research reporting the sequencing of the remaining gap of the Human genome.","verdict":"Advance: The Telomere-to-Telomere consortium filled the last 8% of the human sequence in 2022, the first truly complete human genome.","dependencies":["human_genome"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_genome","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720988"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_human_genome_720988"},{"id":"w_electrocatalyst_5357962","name":"Electrocatalyst","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Catalyst participating in electrochemical or redox reactions.","verdict":"Advance: Electrocatalysts like iridium and nickel–iron oxides lower the energy cost of splitting water, central to green hydrogen.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrocatalyst","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5357962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electrocatalyst_5357962"},{"id":"w_necrobotics_113369048","name":"Necrobotics","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Practice of using biotic materials as robotic components. Researchers introduce the concept of necrobotics and demonstrate it by repurposing dead spiders as robotic grippers by activating their gripping arms via applying pressurized air.","verdict":"Advance: Rice University researchers in 2022 turned dead spiders into pneumatic grippers, a cheap repurposing of biology's ready-made mechanics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Necrobotics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113369048"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_necrobotics_113369048"},{"id":"w_artificial_neuron_177058","name":"Artificial neuron","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical function conceived as a crude model.","verdict":"Advance: Hardware neurons that interface with biology; neuromorphic research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_neuron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177058"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_artificial_neuron_177058"},{"id":"w_ectogenesis_451659","name":"Ectogenesis","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Artificial growth of an organism. First report of Synthetic embryos grown exclusively from mouse embryonic stem cells, without sperm or eggs or a uterus, with natural-like development and some surviving until day 8.5 where early organogenesis, including formation of fo…","verdict":"Advance: Synthetic mouse embryos grown from stem cells outside a womb (2022) push toward artificial gestation, with large implications for medicine and bioethics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ectogenesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451659"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_ectogenesis_451659"},{"id":"w_remote_controlled_animal_7312075","name":"Remote controlled animal","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Animals controlled remotely by humans. Researchers report the development of remote controlled cyborg cockroaches functional if moving to sunlight for recharging.","verdict":"Advance: Solar-backpacked cyborg cockroaches (2022) steer remotely, small biohybrid platforms meant to search rubble after disasters.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Remote_control_animal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7312075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_remote_controlled_animal_7312075"},{"id":"w_paywall_910845","name":"Paywall","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"System that prevents Internet users from accessing webpage content without a paid subscription or fee. In a paywalled article, American scientists propose policy -based measures to reduce large risks from life sciences research – such as pandemics through accident or misapplication.","verdict":"Drift: Paywalls ration access to news and research; revenue model with access costs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Paywall","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q910845"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_paywall_910845"},{"id":"w_transplantation_105196","name":"Transplantation","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Moving of an organ or tissue from one body or body region to another. Success of record-long (3 days rather than usually <12 hours) of human transplant organ preservation with machine perfusion of a liver is reported.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Murray's 1954 kidney transplant between identical twins succeeded, starting the transplant era that now saves over 150,000 lives a year.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantation_%28medicine%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105196"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_transplantation_105196"},{"id":"w_bio_printing_17018741","name":"Bio-printing","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Biomaterials 3D printing. First success of a clinical trial for a 3D bioprinted transplant, an external ear to treat microtia, that is made from the patient's own cells is reported.","verdict":"Advance: A 3D-bioprinted ear made from the patient's own cells, implanted in 2022, was the first such living transplant, a step toward printed organs.","dependencies":["w_3d_printing_229367"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/3D_bioprinting","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17018741"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bio_printing_17018741"},{"id":"w_covid_19_vaccine_87719492","name":"COVID-19 vaccine","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. 2020 – First vaccine for COVID-19.","verdict":"Advance: The mRNA vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna were authorized within 11 months in 2020 and are estimated to have saved millions of lives.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/COVID-19_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q87719492"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_covid_19_vaccine_87719492"},{"id":"w_cartilage_502730","name":"Cartilage","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Resilient and smooth elastic tissue, rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints. Lab-made cartilage gel based on a synthetic hydrogel composite is found to have greater strength and wear resistance than natural cartilage, which could enable the durable resurfacing of damaged articulating joints.","verdict":"Advance: In 2022 researchers developed lab-grown and bioprinted cartilage substitutes aimed at worn-out knees, which do not heal on their own.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cartilage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502730"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cartilage_502730"},{"id":"w_tissue_engineering_1540285","name":"Tissue engineering","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Combination of cells, engineering, and materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or replace biological tissues. 1987 – Tissue engineering – Joseph Vacanti & Robert Langer","verdict":"Advance: Langer and Vacanti's scaffold-and-cell approach (late 1980s) grows skin, cartilage and bladders for implantation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tissue_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1540285"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tissue_engineering_1540285"},{"id":"w_microphyte_589518","name":"Microphyte","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microscopic algae, typically found in freshwater and marine systems, living in both the water column and sediment. Nanoengineers report the development of biocompatible microalgae hybrid microrobots for active drug-delivery in the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract (GT).","verdict":"Advance: Microalgae fix roughly half of Earth's carbon and are being engineered for biofuels, feed and carbon capture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microalgae","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q589518"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_microphyte_589518"},{"id":"w_cyborg_235799","name":"Cyborg","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Being with both organic and biomechatronic body parts. July 15 – A cyborg beetle with a camera was demonstrated. It streams video to a smartphone via Bluetooth for a \"bug's eye view\".","verdict":"Advance: A camera-carrying cyborg beetle (2020) shows insects steered by electronics as tiny search-and-rescue scouts, an early step in biohybrid machines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cyborg","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q235799"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cyborg_235799"},{"id":"w_biocomposite_864417","name":"Biocomposite","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Composite material reinforced by natural fibers. Researchers report the development of a biocomposite 3D printing ink, BactoInk, containing calcium carbonate -producing microorganisms which could be used for restoration, artificial reefs and potentially bone-repair.","verdict":"Advance: Natural-fibre composites printed in 2023 offer strong, biodegradable alternatives to fossil plastics in packaging and parts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Biocomposite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q864417"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_biocomposite_864417"},{"id":"w_wetware_computer_177023","name":"Wetware computer","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Organic computer. June 15 – Researchers reported the development of a polymer device that can receive dopamine signals from real cells and learns from it.","verdict":"Advance: Wetware computing uses living neurons, as in Cortical Labs' DishBrain, which learned Pong in 2022.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wetware_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177023"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wetware_computer_177023"},{"id":"w_neuroenhancement_1801475","name":"Neuroenhancement","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Targeted enhancement and extension of cognition in the healthy. Researchers demonstrate functional integration [ broken anchor ] of a magnetically steered microbot containing neurons, 'Mag-Neurobot', in a mouse \"organotypic hippocampal slice\" ( OHS ) as physical (semi-)artificial neurons.","verdict":"Advance: Brain implants and stimulation now restore lost functions; healthy-brain enhancement is still largely claimed, and it raises questions of fairness and safety.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neuroenhancement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801475"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_neuroenhancement_1801475"},{"id":"w_preprint_580922","name":"Preprint","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Version of a scholarly or scientific paper that precedes publication in a peer-reviewed scholarly or scientific journal. A preprint demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g. posts as \"spam\" or well-visible \"not spam\") machine learning models which are often developed and/or trained by third parties.","verdict":"Advance: Preprints let results circulate before peer review; open, faster science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Preprint","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q580922"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_preprint_580922"},{"id":"w_spider_silk_2740926","name":"Spider silk","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Filament material produced by spiders. Researchers report a production method for spider silk fibers from gene-edited transgenic silkworms for a sustainable alternative material six times stronger than Kevlar.","verdict":"Advance: Spider silk spun from engineered silkworms (2023) promises tough, biodegradable fibres for sutures and textiles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spider_silk","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2740926"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_spider_silk_2740926"},{"id":"w_artificial_gene_synthesis_4118276","name":"Artificial gene synthesis","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fully artificial DNA production method based on solid-phase DNA synthesis. In 10 studies, researchers of the Sc2.0 project report yeast with a half- synthetic genome.","verdict":"Advance: Writing DNA from scratch; synthetic biology's printing press.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_gene_synthesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4118276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_artificial_gene_synthesis_4118276"},{"id":"w_working_animal_228534","name":"Working animal","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Domesticated animals for assisting people.","verdict":"Advance: Harnessing animals for draft, transport and herding multiplied human muscle power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Working_animal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228534"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_working_animal_228534"},{"id":"w_covid_19_drug_development_88459495","name":"COVID-19 drug development","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Preventative and therapeutic medications for COVID-19 infection. The world's first COVID-19 drug designed by generative AI is approved for human use, with clinical trials expected to begin in China. The new drug, ISM3312, is developed by Insilico Medicine.","verdict":"Advance: A COVID antiviral designed by generative AI (Insilico's ISM3312, claimed 2023) shows machine-designed drugs entering the clinic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/COVID-19_drug_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q88459495"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_covid_19_drug_development_88459495"},{"id":"w_antibody_79460","name":"Antibody","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Immune system protein that binds with an antigen. 1900 – Antibody formation theory ( Paul Ehrlich )","verdict":"Advance: Ehrlich's antibody theory; the start of immunology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Antibody","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79460"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_antibody_79460"},{"id":"w_applications_of_artificial_intelligence_4781507","name":"Applications of artificial intelligence","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Applications of machine intelligence. A science writer provides an overview of \"the nascent industry of AI-designed drugs \".","verdict":"Advance: AI starts designing proteins, drugs and materials.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4781507"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_applications_of_artificial_intelligence_4781507"},{"id":"w_cryopreservation_1144664","name":"Cryopreservation","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process where cells, whole tissues, etc. are preserved by cooling to sub-zero temperatures. The first successful transplant of a functional cryopreserved mammalian kidney is reported. The study demonstrates a \"nanowarming\" technique for vitrification for up-to-100 days preservation of transplant organs.","verdict":"Advance: Vitrification preserved and then rewarmed rat kidneys for transplant in 2023, a step toward organ banking.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cryopreservation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1144664"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cryopreservation_1144664"},{"id":"w_cellular_agriculture_27688866","name":"Cellular agriculture","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Production of agriculture products from cell cultures.","verdict":"Advance: Lab-grown meat was approved for sale in Singapore (2020) and the US (2023), aiming to produce protein without the land and emissions of livestock.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cellular_agriculture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27688866"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cellular_agriculture_27688866"},{"id":"w_cell_therapy_15268054","name":"Cell therapy","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Therapy in which cellular material is injected into a patient. Four cell therapy companies die.","verdict":"Advance: Cell therapy, from bone-marrow grafts to engineered cells, uses living cells as medicine; early commercial ventures often failed before CAR-T succeeded.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cell_therapy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_biotechnology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15268054"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cell_therapy_15268054"},{"id":"w_category_719395","name":"Category","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algebraic structure of objects and morphisms between objects, which can be associatively composed if the (co)domains agree. Categories of abstract algebraic structures including representation theory and universal algebra;","verdict":"Advance: Eilenberg and Mac Lane's 1945 category theory unified mathematics and influenced programming languages.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Category_(mathematics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q719395"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_category_719395"},{"id":"w_resolution_2112483","name":"Resolution","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In algebra, an exact sequence which is used to describe the structure of an object. David Hilbert Resolution of modules and free resolution of modules.","verdict":"Advance: Hilbert's 1890 syzygy theorem on free resolutions became a basis of commutative algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Resolution_(algebra)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2112483"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_resolution_2112483"},{"id":"w_fundamental_group_662830","name":"Fundamental group","year":1894,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical group of the homotopy classes of loops in a topological space. Henri Poincaré Fundamental group of a topological space.","verdict":"Advance: Poincaré's 1895 fundamental group classified spaces by loops, founding algebraic topology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fundamental_group","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q662830"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fundamental_group_662830"},{"id":"w_simplicial_homology_7520902","name":"Simplicial homology","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Concept in algebraic topology. Henri Poincaré Simplicial homology.","verdict":"Advance: Poincaré's 1895 homology counted holes in spaces, now used in data analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Simplicial_homology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7520902"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_simplicial_homology_7520902"},{"id":"w_k_nneth_theorem_1307676","name":"Künneth theorem","year":1923,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. Hermann Künneth Künneth formula for homology of product of spaces.","verdict":"Advance: Hermann Künneth's 1923 formula computes homology of product spaces.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/K%C3%BCnneth_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1307676"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_k_nneth_theorem_1307676"},{"id":"w_groupoid_1196038","name":"Groupoid","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Category where every morphism is invertible; generalization of a group. Heinrich Brandt Defines the notion of groupoid.","verdict":"Advance: Heinrich Brandt's 1926 groupoids generalized groups, later used in topology and physics symmetries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Groupoid","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1196038"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_groupoid_1196038"},{"id":"w_heyting_algebra_1617044","name":"Heyting algebra","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bounded lattice that models intuitionistic propositional logic. Arend Heyting Brouwer's intuitionistic logic made into formal mathematics, as logic in which the Heyting algebra replaces the Boolean algebra.","verdict":"Advance: Arend Heyting's 1930 algebra formalized intuitionistic logic, linked to type theory and proof assistants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heyting_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1617044"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heyting_algebra_1617044"},{"id":"w_chain_complex_1143328","name":"Chain complex","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"In homological algebra, a structure consisting of a sequence of modules and a sequence of homomorphisms between consecutive modules such that the image of each homomorphism is included in the kernel of the next. Walther Mayer Chain complexes.","verdict":"Advance: Chain complexes, formalized in the 1930s–40s, are the backbone of homological algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chain_complex","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143328"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chain_complex_1143328"},{"id":"w_module_18848","name":"Module","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Generalization of vector space, with scalars in a ring instead of a field. Emmy Noether Module theory is developed by Noether and her students, and algebraic topology starts to be properly founded in abstract algebra rather than by ad hoc arguments.","verdict":"Advance: Emmy Noether's 1920s module theory generalized vector spaces over rings.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Module_(mathematics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18848"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_module_18848"},{"id":"w_ech_cohomology_1095535","name":"Čech cohomology","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cohomology theory based on the intersection properties of open covers of a topological space. Eduard Čech Čech cohomology, homotopy groups of a topological space.","verdict":"Advance: Eduard Čech's 1932 cohomology built invariants from open covers, used in sheaf theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/%C4%8Cech_cohomology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1095535"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ech_cohomology_1095535"},{"id":"w_singular_homology_1095056","name":"Singular homology","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Homology of the chain complex of singular chains (integer linear combinations of maps from simplexes into a given topological space). Solomon Lefschetz Singular homology of topological spaces.","verdict":"Advance: Samuel Eilenberg's 1944 singular homology made homology rigorous for any topological space.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Singular_homology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1095056"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_singular_homology_1095056"},{"id":"w_ext_functor_1384902","name":"Ext functor","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Derived functors of the Hom functor. Reinhold Baer Ext groups, Ext functor (for abelian groups and with different notation).","verdict":"Advance: Reinhold Baer's 1934 Ext groups classify extensions, central to homological algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ext_functor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1384902"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ext_functor_1384902"},{"id":"w_homotopy_group_1626416","name":"Homotopy group","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algebraic construct classifying topological spaces. Witold Hurewicz Higher homotopy groups of a topological space.","verdict":"Advance: Witold Hurewicz's 1935 higher homotopy groups classify spaces beyond loops.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Homotopy_group","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1626416"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_homotopy_group_1626416"},{"id":"w_stone_s_representation_theorem_for_boole_1166774","name":"Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. Marshall Stone Stone representation theorem for Boolean algebras initiates various Stone dualities.","verdict":"Advance: Marshall Stone's 1936 theorem linked Boolean algebras to topology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stone's_representation_theorem_for_Boolean_algebras","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1166774"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stone_s_representation_theorem_for_boole_1166774"},{"id":"w_cohomology_1198376","name":"Cohomology","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Sequences of abelian groups attached to a topological space. 1931 – Georges de Rham develops theorems in cohomology and characteristic classes,","verdict":"Advance: Georges de Rham's 1931 theorem linked differential forms to topology through cohomology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cohomology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1198376"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cohomology_1198376"},{"id":"w_injective_module_2716519","name":"Injective module","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Module that makes certain exact sequences split. Reinhold Baer Injective modules.","verdict":"Advance: Reinhold Baer's 1940 injective modules became a key tool in homological algebra.","dependencies":["w_module_18848"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Injective_module","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2716519"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_injective_module_2716519"},{"id":"w_hopf_algebra_1627597","name":"Hopf algebra","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bialgebra that admits an antipode. Heinz Hopf Hopf algebras.","verdict":"Advance: Heinz Hopf's 1941 algebras now describe quantum groups and renormalization.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hopf_algebra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1627597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hopf_algebra_1627597"},{"id":"w_exact_sequence_1326955","name":"Exact sequence","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sequence of homomorphisms such that each kernel equals the preceding image. Witold Hurewicz First fundamental theorem of homological algebra: Given a short exact sequence of spaces there exist a connecting homomorphism such that the long sequence of cohomology groups of the spaces is exact.","verdict":"Advance: Hurewicz's 1941 exact sequences track how algebraic structures fit together, a standard topology tool.","dependencies":["w_chain_complex_1143328"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exact_sequence","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1326955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_exact_sequence_1326955"},{"id":"w_gelfand_naimark_theorem_2226682","name":"Gelfand–Naimark theorem","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematics theorem in functional analysis.","verdict":"Advance: Gelfand and Naimark's 1943 theorem represents C*-algebras as operators, used in quantum mechanics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gelfand%E2%80%93Naimark_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2226682"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gelfand_naimark_theorem_2226682"},{"id":"w_cohomology_ring_5141399","name":"Cohomology ring","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Concept in algebraic topology. Beno Eckmann Defines the cohomology ring building on Heinz Hopf 's work.","verdict":"Advance: Beno Eckmann's cohomology ring added multiplication to topological invariants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohomology_ring","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5141399"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cohomology_ring_5141399"},{"id":"w_sheaf_595298","name":"Sheaf","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Collection of objects associated to subsets of a space in a manner admitting gluing and restriction. Jean Leray Starts sheaf theory: At this time a sheaf was a map that assigned a module or a ring to a closed subspace of a topological space. The first example was the sheaf assigning to a closed subspace its p-th cohomology group.","verdict":"Advance: Jean Leray's 1945 sheaves track local data, used in geometry and data science.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sheaf_(mathematics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q595298"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sheaf_595298"},{"id":"w_sheaf_cohomology_1493952","name":"Sheaf cohomology","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Right derived functors of the global sections functor Γ: AbSh → Ab. Jean Leray Defines Sheaf cohomology using his new concept of sheaf.","verdict":"Advance: Leray's 1945 sheaf cohomology, developed in a POW camp, became fundamental to geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sheaf_cohomology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1493952"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sheaf_cohomology_1493952"},{"id":"w_spectral_sequence_3503315","name":"Spectral sequence","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In homological algebra, a means of computing homology groups by taking successive approximations. Jean Leray Invents spectral sequences as a method for iteratively approximating cohomology groups by previous approximate cohomology groups. In the limiting case it gives the sought cohomology groups.","verdict":"Advance: Leray's 1946 spectral sequence computes complicated homology through approximations.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spectral_sequence","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503315"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spectral_sequence_3503315"},{"id":"w_weil_conjectures_1479613","name":"Weil conjectures","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. André Weil Formulates the Weil conjectures on remarkable relations between the cohomological structure of algebraic varieties over C and the diophantine structure of algebraic varieties over finite fields.","verdict":"Advance: André Weil's 1949 conjectures, proved by Deligne in 1974, linked topology and number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weil_conjectures","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1479613"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_weil_conjectures_1479613"},{"id":"w_simplicial_set_1467124","name":"Simplicial set","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Construction in categorical homotopy theory; contravariant functor from the simplex category to the category of sets. Samuel Eilenberg –Joe Zilber Simplicial sets as a purely algebraic model of well behaved topological spaces. A simplicial set can also be seen as a presheaf on the simplex category.","verdict":"Advance: Eilenberg and Zilber's 1950 simplicial sets model spaces combinatorially, used in homotopy theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Simplicial_set","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1467124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_simplicial_set_1467124"},{"id":"w_yoneda_lemma_320577","name":"Yoneda lemma","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In category theory, a theorem that embeds a locally small category into a category of functors. Nobuo Yoneda Yoneda publishes his famous lemma. Yoneda's Lemma allows one to consider objects in a (small) category as a presheaves. Yoneda lemma plays a critical role in the study of representable functors in algebraic geometry.","verdict":"Advance: Nobuo Yoneda's lemma is a central result of category theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yoneda_lemma","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320577"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_yoneda_lemma_320577"},{"id":"w_coherent_sheaf_906907","name":"Coherent sheaf","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Finite-type sheaf F of modules over a ringed space such that the kernel of a surjective morphism from a finite direct sum of the structure sheaf onto it is also of finite type. Jean-Pierre Serre Shows there is a 1−1 correspondence between algebraic vector bundles over an affine variety and finitely generated projective modules over its coordinate ring ( Serre–Swan theorem ).","verdict":"Advance: Coherent sheaves (Cartan, Serre, 1950s) are the main tool of algebraic geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coherent_sheaf","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q906907"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_coherent_sheaf_906907"},{"id":"w_abelian_category_318737","name":"Abelian category","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Preadditive category with a zero object and all binary biproducts, kernels and cokernels in which all monomorphisms and epimorphisms are normal. Alexander Grothendieck Abelian categories in homological algebra that combine exactness and linearity.","verdict":"Advance: A core structure of modern algebra and homological methods.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Abelian_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318737"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_abelian_category_318737"},{"id":"w_grothendieck_hirzebruch_riemann_roch_the_1899432","name":"Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Result in algebraic geometry. Alexander Grothendieck Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem for smooth schemes; the proof introduces K-theory.","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's 1957 Riemann–Roch generalization launched K-theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grothendieck%E2%80%93Riemann%E2%80%93Roch_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1899432"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_grothendieck_hirzebruch_riemann_roch_the_1899432"},{"id":"w_monad_1630568","name":"Monad","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Monoid in an endofunctor category. Roger Godement Monads in category theory (then called standard constructions and triples).","verdict":"Advance: Roger Godement's 1958 monads became a design pattern in functional programming.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Monad_(category_theory)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1630568"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_monad_1630568"},{"id":"w_adjoint_functor_357858","name":"Adjoint functor","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Relationship that two functors may have. Daniel Kan Daniel Kan introduces Adjoint functors. They are critical, for example, in the theory of sheaves.","verdict":"Advance: A unifying concept across mathematics; the backbone of category theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Adjoint_functors","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q357858"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_adjoint_functor_357858"},{"id":"w_limit_1322614","name":"Limit","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Category theory term. Daniel Kan Limits in category theory.","verdict":"Advance: Daniel Kan's 1958 limits unified constructions like products across category theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Limit_(category_theory)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1322614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_limit_1322614"},{"id":"w_kan_extension_1723418","name":"Kan extension","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Category theory constructs. Daniel Kan Kan extensions","verdict":"Advance: Kan's 1958 extensions generalize functor constructions, a central idea of category theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kan_extension","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1723418"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kan_extension_1723418"},{"id":"w_representable_functor_386320","name":"Representable functor","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Functor F: C → Set to the category of sets, naturally isomorphic to a hom-functor hom(X, –) for some object X in C. Alexander Grothendieck Representable functors","verdict":"Advance: Representable functors, from Grothendieck and Yoneda, characterize objects by their relations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Representable_functor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q386320"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_representable_functor_386320"},{"id":"w_associahedron_4809117","name":"Associahedron","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"(𝑛−2)-dimensional convex polytope in which each vertex corresponds to a parenthesization of a word of 𝑛 letters and each edge corresponds to an application of the associativity rule. Jim Stasheff Associahedra later used in the definition of weak n -categories","verdict":"Advance: Polytope with uses in physics and algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Associahedron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4809117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_associahedron_4809117"},{"id":"w_compact_space_381892","name":"Compact space","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Topological space in which from every open cover of the space, a finite cover can be extracted. Richard Swan Shows there is a 1−1 correspondence between topological vector bundles over a compact Hausdorff space X and finitely generated projective modules over the ring C ( X ) of continuous functions on X ( Serre–Swan theorem )","verdict":"Advance: Compact spaces, which generalize closed bounded sets, guarantee that optimization problems have solutions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compact_space","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q381892"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_compact_space_381892"},{"id":"w_etale_cohomology_8078429","name":"Etale cohomology","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sheaf cohomology on the étale site. Alexander Grothendieck Étale cohomology","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's 1960s étale cohomology was the tool Deligne used to prove the Weil conjectures.","dependencies":["w_sheaf_cohomology_1493952"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/%C3%89tale_cohomology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8078429"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_etale_cohomology_8078429"},{"id":"w_topos_2143621","name":"Topos","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Category admitting all finite limits and power objects, that can be viewed as either as a mathematical universe (replacing the category of sets) or as a generalized space (considered as a generalization of the category of sheaves on a space). Alexander Grothendieck Grothendieck toposes, which are categories which are like universes (generalized spaces) of sets in which one can do mathematics","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's toposes, extended by Lawvere and Tierney, serve as alternative universes for logic.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Topos","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2143621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_topos_2143621"},{"id":"w_triangulated_category_7840150","name":"Triangulated category","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Category with the additional structure of a translation functor and a class of distinguished triangles. Jean-Louis Verdier Triangulated categories and triangulated functors. Derived categories and derived functors are special cases of these","verdict":"Advance: Jean-Louis Verdier's 1963 triangulated categories formalized derived categories.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Triangulated_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7840150"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_triangulated_category_7840150"},{"id":"w_monoidal_category_1945014","name":"Monoidal category","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Category admitting tensor products. Saunders Mac Lane Monoidal categories, also called tensor categories: Strict 2-categories with one object made by a relabelling trick to categories with a tensor product of objects that is secretly the composition of morphisms in the 2-…","verdict":"Advance: Saunders Mac Lane's 1963 monoidal categories model tensor products and quantum processes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Monoidal_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1945014"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_monoidal_category_1945014"},{"id":"w_grothendieck_topology_1062242","name":"Grothendieck topology","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Structure on a category C which makes the objects of C act like the open sets of a topological space. Alexander Grothendieck Topologizes categories axiomatically by imposing a Grothendieck topology on categories which are then called sites. The purpose of sites is to define coverings on them so sheaves over sites can be defined.","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck topologies redefined \"open sets\" categorically, enabling étale cohomology.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grothendieck_topology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062242"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_grothendieck_topology_1062242"},{"id":"w_enriched_category_5379515","name":"Enriched category","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Category whose hom sets have additional structure. Max Kelly – Samuel Eilenberg Enriched category theory: Categories C enriched over a category V are categories with Hom-sets Hom C not just a set or class but with the structure of objects in the category V.","verdict":"Advance: Eilenberg and Kelly's 1965 enriched categories let hom-sets carry structure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Enriched_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5379515"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_enriched_category_5379515"},{"id":"w_strict_2_category_4596935","name":"Strict 2-category","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Generalization of category. Charles Ehresmann Defines both strict 2-categories and strict n -categories","verdict":"Advance: Charles Ehresmann's 2-categories describe morphisms between morphisms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4596935"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_strict_2_category_4596935"},{"id":"w_crystalline_cohomology_5191431","name":"Crystalline cohomology","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Weil cohomology theory for schemes over a base field, whose values are modules over the ring of Witt vectors over the base field, that replaces Zariski open sets by infinitesimal thickenings of Zariski open sets with divided power structures. Alexander Grothendieck Crystals (a kind of sheaf used in crystalline cohomology )","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's 1966 crystalline cohomology handles geometry in characteristic p.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystalline_cohomology","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5191431"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_crystalline_cohomology_5191431"},{"id":"w_kochen_specker_theorem_528955","name":"Kochen–Specker theorem","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Theorem that any hidden-variable theory describing quantum mechanics must be contextual. Simon Kochen–Ernst Specker Kochen–Specker theorem in quantum mechanics","verdict":"Advance: Kochen and Specker's 1967 theorem showed quantum outcomes depend on measurement context.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kochen%E2%80%93Specker_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q528955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kochen_specker_theorem_528955"},{"id":"w_derived_category_5262626","name":"Derived category","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Homotopy category of chain complexes in an abelian category with inverses to quasi-isomorphisms adjoined. Jean-Louis Verdier Defines derived categories and redefines derived functors in terms of derived categories","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck and Verdier's 1960s derived categories organize homology, used in mirror symmetry.","dependencies":["w_category_719395"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Derived_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5262626"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_derived_category_5262626"},{"id":"w_model_category_1941896","name":"Model category","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mathematical category with weak equivalences, fibrations and cofibrations.","verdict":"Advance: Daniel Quillen's 1967 model categories gave homotopy theory a general framework.","dependencies":["w_category_719395"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Model_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1941896"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_model_category_1941896"},{"id":"w_operad_842072","name":"Operad","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Prototypes of algebras that model properties such as commutativity, anticommutativity, or associativity. Michael Boardman and Rainer Vogt (1968), Peter May (1972) Operads: An abstraction of the family of composable functions of several variables together with an action of permutation of variables.","verdict":"Advance: J. Peter May's 1972 operads encode algebraic operations, used in topology and physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operad","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842072"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_operad_842072"},{"id":"w_curry_howard_correspondence_975734","name":"Curry–Howard correspondence","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"The direct relationship between computer programs and mathematical proofs. Joachim Lambek Generalizes the Haskell–Curry–William–Howard correspondence to a three way isomorphism between types, propositions and objects of a cartesian closed category","verdict":"Advance: Curry and Howard showed proofs correspond to programs, the basis of proof assistants like Rocq and Lean.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q975734"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_curry_howard_correspondence_975734"},{"id":"w_grothendieck_universe_1465090","name":"Grothendieck universe","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Transitive set closed under the operations of parameterized union, power set and unordered pairs. Alexander Grothendieck Grothendieck universes for sets as part of foundations for categories","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck universes provide set-theoretic foundations for category theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grothendieck_universe","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1465090"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_grothendieck_universe_1465090"},{"id":"w_complete_metric_space_848569","name":"Complete metric space","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Metric space in which cauchy sequence converges to an element of the space. William Lawvere Finds that Cauchy completeness can be expressed for general enriched categories with the category of generalized metric spaces as a special case.","verdict":"Advance: William Lawvere's 1973 insight treated metric spaces as enriched categories.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Complete_metric_space","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848569"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_complete_metric_space_848569"},{"id":"w_new_foundations_649337","name":"New Foundations","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Axiomatic set theory permitting set comprehension by stratified formulae, hence with a universal set, but in which the singleton map 𝑥↦{𝑥} fails to exist. Andre Boileau– André Joyal –John Zangwill LST, local set theory: Local set theory is a typed set theory whose underlying logic is higher-order intuitionistic logic.","verdict":"Advance: W. V. O. Quine's 1937 New Foundations offered an alternative set theory with a universal set.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/New_Foundations","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q649337"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_new_foundations_649337"},{"id":"w_wigner_weyl_transform_1431119","name":"Wigner–Weyl transform","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mapping between functions in the quantum phase space. Francois Bayen–Moshe Flato–Chris Fronsdal– André Lichnerowicz –Daniel Sternheimer Deformation quantization, later to be a part of categorical quantization","verdict":"Advance: Bayen, Flato, Fronsdal, Lichnerowicz and Sternheimer's 1978 deformation quantization formalized phase-space quantum mechanics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wigner%E2%80%93Weyl_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1431119"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_wigner_weyl_transform_1431119"},{"id":"w_combinatorial_species_4457949","name":"Combinatorial species","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Endofunctor on the category of finite sets and bijections, which can be used to analyse discrete structures in terms of generating functions. André Joyal Combinatorial species in enumerative combinatorics","verdict":"Advance: André Joyal's 1981 combinatorial species gave a category framework for counting structures.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_species","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4457949"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_combinatorial_species_4457949"},{"id":"w_homotopy_746083","name":"Homotopy","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Continuous deformation between two continuous maps. Alexander Grothendieck Elementary modelizers: Categories of presheaves that modelize homotopy types (thus generalizing the theory of simplicial sets ). Canonical modelizers are also used in pursuing stacks","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's 1983 letter \"Pursuing Stacks\" proposed a categorical foundation for homotopy theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Homotopy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q746083"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_homotopy_746083"},{"id":"w_linear_logic_841728","name":"Linear logic","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"System of resource-aware logic. Jean-Yves Girard Linear logic: The internal logic of a linear category (an enriched category with its Hom-sets being linear spaces )","verdict":"Advance: Jean-Yves Girard's 1987 linear logic treats propositions as resources, influencing type systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Linear_logic","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841728"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_linear_logic_841728"},{"id":"w_conformal_field_theory_1191271","name":"Conformal field theory","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum field theory that is invariant under conformal transformations. Graeme Segal Conformal field theory CFT: A symmetric monoidal functor Z: nCob C → Hilb satisfying some axioms","verdict":"Advance: Belavin, Polyakov and Zamolodchikov's 1984 conformal field theory describes critical phenomena and strings.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Conformal_field_theory","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1191271"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_conformal_field_theory_1191271"},{"id":"w_topological_quantum_field_theory_721094","name":"Topological quantum field theory","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum field theory whose correlation functions do not depend on the spacetime metric. Edward Witten Topological quantum field theory TQFT: A monoidal functor Z: nCob → Hilb satisfying some axioms","verdict":"Advance: Edward Witten's 1988 topological quantum field theory linked physics to knot invariants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Topological_quantum_field_theory","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q721094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_topological_quantum_field_theory_721094"},{"id":"w_topological_string_theory_2159720","name":"Topological string theory","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"String theory with a topologically twisted 𝒩=(2,2) sigma-model action on the worldsheet and 6 target-space dimensions. Edward Witten Topological string theory","verdict":"Advance: Witten's 1988 topological strings computed geometric invariants of Calabi–Yau spaces.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Topological_string_theory","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2159720"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_topological_string_theory_2159720"},{"id":"w_morphism_1948412","name":"Morphism","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Map (arrow) between two objects of a category. for all X, Y in Ob( C ) the Hom-sets Hom C ( X, Y ) are finite-dimensional chain complexes of Z -graded modules","verdict":"Advance: Morphisms, the arrows of category theory, abstract maps between objects so that one proof covers many structures.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Morphism","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1948412"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_morphism_1948412"},{"id":"w_homological_mirror_symmetry_11338004","name":"Homological mirror symmetry","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Equivalence between the derived Fukaya category of a symplectic manifold and the derived category of coherent sheaves on a complex manifold.","verdict":"Advance: Maxim Kontsevich's 1994 homological mirror symmetry connected symplectic and algebraic geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Homological_mirror_symmetry","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11338004"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_homological_mirror_symmetry_11338004"},{"id":"w_cobordism_hypothesis_16910990","name":"Cobordism hypothesis","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Classification of topological quantum field theories. John Baez – James Dolan Tangle hypothesis: The n -category of framed n -tangles in n + k dimensions is ( n + k )-equivalent to the free weak k -tuply monoidal n -category with duals on one object.","verdict":"Advance: Baez and Dolan's 1995 cobordism hypothesis, proved by Lurie, classifies topological field theories.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobordism_hypothesis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16910990"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cobordism_hypothesis_16910990"},{"id":"w_spin_foam_914299","name":"Spin foam","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In quantum gravity, a structure consisting of two-dimensional faces for path integrals. John Baez Spin foam models: A 2-dimensional cell complex with faces labeled by representations and edges labeled by intertwining operators. Spin foams are functors between spin network categories.","verdict":"Advance: John Baez's 1998 spin foams model quantum spacetime in loop quantum gravity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spin_foam","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q914299"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spin_foam_914299"},{"id":"w_preadditive_category_2099981","name":"Preadditive category","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mathematical category whose hom sets form Abelian groups. Maxim Kontsevich Calabi–Yau categories: A linear category with a trace map for each object of the category and an associated symmetric (with respects to objects) nondegenerate pairing to the trace map.","verdict":"Advance: Kontsevich's Calabi–Yau categories (1998) structure mirror symmetry.","dependencies":["w_enriched_category_5379515"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Preadditive_category","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2099981"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_preadditive_category_2099981"},{"id":"w_scheme_1155772","name":"Scheme","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Object of algebraic geometry, commutative algebra and number theory; a ringed space locally isomorphic to the spectrum of a commutative ring. Bertrand Toën-Gabriele Vezzosi Homotopical algebraic geometry: The main idea is to extend schemes by formally replacing the rings with any kind of \"homotopy-ring-like object\".","verdict":"Advance: Grothendieck's 1960 schemes rebuilt algebraic geometry, used in Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scheme_(mathematics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_category_theory_and_related_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_scheme_1155772"},{"id":"w_charcoal_1424515","name":"Charcoal","year":-30000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Form of dry art medium. Carbon 26000 BC 26000 BC Earliest humans Charcoal and soot were known to the earliest humans, with the oldest known charcoal paintings dating to about 28000 years ago, e.g. Gabarnmung in Australia.","verdict":"Advance: Charred wood drew the Chauvet cave paintings, was the fuel that later smelted metal, and in activated form now filters water and air.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Charcoal_(art)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1424515"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_charcoal_1424515"},{"id":"w_pencil_14674","name":"Pencil","year":1795,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Writing implement. 1795 – Nicolas-Jacques Conté invents the pencil.","verdict":"Advance: Nicolas-Jacques Conté's 1795 graphite-and-clay rod freed France from English graphite and let hardness be graded, the modern pencil.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pencil","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14674"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pencil_14674"},{"id":"w_ballpoint_pen_160137","name":"Ballpoint pen","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Writing implement. 1888 – John J. Loud invents the ballpoint pen.","verdict":"Advance: John Loud's 1888 ball-tipped pen marked leather; László Bíró's 1938 version made the cheapest writing tool in history.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ballpoint_pen","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160137"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ballpoint_pen_160137"},{"id":"w_semaphore_line_378499","name":"Semaphore line","year":1792,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System of visual communication. 1792 – Claude Chappe invents the semaphore telegraph.","verdict":"Advance: Chappe's semaphore towers relayed messages from Paris to Lille in minutes (1794), the first national telecom network.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_telegraph","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378499"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_semaphore_line_378499"},{"id":"w_morse_code_79897","name":"Morse code","year":1835,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Communication code with signals representing letters, punctuation marks and numbers. 1835 – Samuel Morse develops the Morse code","verdict":"Advance: Morse and Vail's dot-dash code (1838) sent text over a single wire and became the international language of telegraphy and radio for a century.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Morse_code","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79897"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_morse_code_79897"},{"id":"w_laser_turntable_477485","name":"Laser turntable","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turntable that plays records using laser beams. 1977 – William K. Heine invents the laser turntable.","verdict":"Advance: William Heine's laser turntable read vinyl without wear, a niche way of preserving fragile records.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laser_turntable","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477485"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_laser_turntable_477485"},{"id":"w_mobile_radio_telephone_789202","name":"Mobile radio telephone","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of pre-cellular PSTN wireless communication technologies. 1957 – Leonid Kupriyanovich invents the LK-1 mobile radio telephone, the first to use code-division multiple access.","verdict":"Advance: Leonid Kupriyanovich's 1957 LK-1 pocket radiotelephone, and Bell's MTS service, prefigured cellular phones.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mobile_radio_telephone","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q789202"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mobile_radio_telephone_789202"},{"id":"w_nordic_mobile_telephone_854862","name":"Nordic Mobile Telephone","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mobile telephone system. 1981 – Comvik introduces the world's first automatic mobile phone service followed a week later by Nordic Mobile Telephone.","verdict":"Advance: NMT, launched in 1981 across Nordic countries, was the first automatic cellular network with roaming, a precursor of GSM.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nordic_Mobile_Telephone","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q854862"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nordic_mobile_telephone_854862"},{"id":"w_email_9158","name":"Email","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Electronic changing digital messages between a network. 1965 – First email sent (at MIT ). Exhibition space at Rupriikki Media Museum in Tampere, Finland","verdict":"Advance: MIT's CTSS MAIL (1965) let time-sharing users leave messages, and Ray Tomlinson's 1971 @ addressing took email across networks.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Email","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9158"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1971)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_email_9158"},{"id":"w_optical_waveguide_3191702","name":"Optical waveguide","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Structure that guides electromagnetic waves in the optical spectrum. 1966 – Charles K. Kao realizes that silica-based optical waveguides offer a practical way to transmit light via total internal reflection.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Kao showed in 1966 that purified glass could carry light far, and his Nobel (2009) recognized the fibre optics carrying the internet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Waveguide_(optics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3191702"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_optical_waveguide_3191702"},{"id":"w_floppy_disk_5293","name":"Floppy disk","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Removable disk storage medium. US The floppy disk is invented at IBM under the direction of Alan Shugart, for use as a microprogram load device for the System/370 and peripheral controllers.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 1971 8-inch floppy, developed under Alan Shugart, made software portable and personal computing possible.","dependencies":["w_magnetic_storage_1364527"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Floppy_disk","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5293"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_floppy_disk_5293"},{"id":"w_mailing_list_714827","name":"Mailing list","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Collection of names and addresses used to send material to multiple recipients. 1975 – First list servers are introduced.","verdict":"Advance: LISTSERV (1986) and earlier mailing lists let thousands discuss by email, the first online communities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mailing_list","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q714827"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mailing_list_714827"},{"id":"w_tex_5301","name":"TeX","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Typesetting system. 1977 – Donald Knuth begins work on TeX.","verdict":"Advance: Donald Knuth's TeX typeset mathematics beautifully from 1978 and still formats most scientific papers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/TeX","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5301"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_tex_5301"},{"id":"w_usenet_193162","name":"Usenet","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Worldwide computer-based distributed discussion system. 1980 – Usenet is established.","verdict":"Advance: Usenet (1980) ran distributed newsgroups, the forerunner of internet forums.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Usenet","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193162"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_usenet_193162"},{"id":"w_wordperfect_174757","name":"WordPerfect","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Word processing application. WordPerfect 1.0 Satellite Software","verdict":"Advance: WordPerfect (1979) dominated office word processing in the 1980s.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/WordPerfect","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174757"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wordperfect_174757"},{"id":"w_hcl_domino_60198","name":"HCL Domino","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rapid application development platform. 1989 – Lotus Notes software is launched.","verdict":"Advance: Ray Ozzie's Lotus Notes (1989) pioneered groupware with replicated databases.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HCL_Notes","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60198"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hcl_domino_60198"},{"id":"w_archie_633739","name":"Archie","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"FTP search engine. 1990 – Archie, the world's first search engine, was released.","verdict":"Advance: The first internet search engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Archie_(search_engine)","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q633739"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_archie_633739"},{"id":"w_thinkpad_861126","name":"ThinkPad","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Business computers and tablets series by Lenovo. 1992 – IBM ThinkPad 700C laptop computer created. It was lightweight compared to its predecessors.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's ThinkPad 700C (1992) introduced the TrackPoint and set durable business-laptop design.","dependencies":["w_laptop_3962"],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPad","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q861126"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_thinkpad_861126"},{"id":"w_social_networking_service_3220391","name":"Social networking service","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Online platform that facilitates the building of social relations. 1997 – SixDegrees.com is launched, the first of several early social networking services.","verdict":"Advance: From SixDegrees (1997) to Facebook, social networks connected billions, enabling organizing but also attention-optimized feeds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Social_networking_service","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3220391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_social_networking_service_3220391"},{"id":"w_microsoft_teams_28406404","name":"Microsoft Teams","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Team collaboration and videoconferencing application developed by Microsoft. 2017 – Teams is launched.","verdict":"Advance: Microsoft's Teams (2017) combined chat and video meetings, which became core infrastructure for remote work in 2020.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microsoft_Teams","https://grokipedia.com/page/History_of_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28406404"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_microsoft_teams_28406404"},{"id":"w_generating_primes_4116925","name":"Generating primes","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Algorithms to generate prime numbers. F. W. Lawrence provides a high-level design for a mechanical, automated prime sieve in his paper \"Factorisation of numbers\".","verdict":"Advance: Mechanical prime sieves (1890s) and later computers generated primes for number theory and cryptography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generation_of_primes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4116925"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_generating_primes_4116925"},{"id":"w_manchester_baby_514818","name":"Manchester Baby","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First electronic stored-program computer. A routine for the Manchester Baby written to factor a large number (2^18), one of the first in computational number theory. The Manchester group would make several other breakthroughs in this area.","verdict":"Advance: The Manchester Baby ran the first stored program on 21 June 1948, using Williams tube memory.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Manchester_Baby","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q514818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_manchester_baby_514818"},{"id":"w_metropolis_hastings_algorithm_910810","name":"Metropolis–Hastings algorithm","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm. Also, important earlier independent work by Alder and S. Frankel.","verdict":"Advance: The Metropolis algorithm (1953) samples complex probability distributions, central to physics and Bayesian statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metropolis%E2%80%93Hastings_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q910810"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_metropolis_hastings_algorithm_910810"},{"id":"w_householder_transformation_304490","name":"Householder transformation","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Linear transformation that describes a reflection about a plane or hyperplane containing the origin. Householder invents his eponymous matrices and transformation method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).","verdict":"Advance: Alston Householder's 1958 reflections give stable matrix factorizations used in scientific computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Householder_transformation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q304490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_householder_transformation_304490"},{"id":"w_finite_element_method_220184","name":"Finite element method","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numerical method for solving physical or engineering problems. First recorded use of the term \"finite element method\" by Ray Clough, to describe the methods of Courant, Hrenikoff and Zienkiewicz, among others. See also here.","verdict":"Advance: Clough named the finite element method in 1960; it now simulates bridges, aircraft and car crashes.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Finite_element_method","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220184"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_finite_element_method_220184"},{"id":"w_three_body_problem_607699","name":"Three-body problem","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Classical mechanics problem of three massive point particles interacting via Newtonian gravity; special case of the 𝑛‐body problem for 𝑛=3. Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method.","verdict":"Advance: Poincaré's 1890 work on the three-body problem revealed chaos, with exact solutions found by computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three-body_problem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q607699"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_three_body_problem_607699"},{"id":"w_birch_and_swinnerton_dyer_conjecture_527863","name":"Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Conjecture. Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture formulated through investigations on a computer.","verdict":"Advance: Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer's 1960s conjecture, found with an EDSAC computer, is a Millennium Prize problem.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Birch_and_Swinnerton-Dyer_conjecture","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q527863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_birch_and_swinnerton_dyer_conjecture_527863"},{"id":"w_verlet_integration_2984997","name":"Verlet integration","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Numerical method used to integrate Newton's equations of motion.","verdict":"Advance: Loup Verlet's 1967 integration conserves energy in molecular dynamics simulations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Verlet_integration","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2984997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_verlet_integration_2984997"},{"id":"w_julia_set_848427","name":"Julia set","year":1918,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fractal set named after Gaston Maurice Julia. Mandelbrot, from studies of the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets, coined and popularized the term 'fractal' to describe these structures' self-similarity.","verdict":"Advance: Gaston Julia and Pierre Fatou's 1918 sets became famous through Mandelbrot's fractal images.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Julia_set","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848427"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_julia_set_848427"},{"id":"w_four_color_theorem_184410","name":"Four color theorem","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Statement in mathematics. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer.","verdict":"Advance: The first major theorem proved with a computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Four_color_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184410"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_four_color_theorem_184410"},{"id":"w_volunteer_computing_2367171","name":"Volunteer computing","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System where users donate computer resources to contribute to research. The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing – GIMPS (1996) and distributed.net (1997).","verdict":"Advance: GIMPS (1996) and SETI@home (1999) harnessed volunteers' computers for research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Volunteer_computing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2367171"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_volunteer_computing_2367171"},{"id":"w_kepler_conjecture_966873","name":"Kepler conjecture","year":1611,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical theorem about sphere packing. Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales in 1998.","verdict":"Advance: Kepler's 1611 sphere-packing conjecture was proven by Thomas Hales by computer, verified formally in 2014.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kepler_conjecture","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q966873"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kepler_conjecture_966873"},{"id":"w_bark_4384247","name":"BARK","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early Swedish relay computer. Sweden BARK was finished in Sweden. Next to come was BESK in 1953.","verdict":"Advance: Sweden's BARK (1950) was a relay computer that preceded BESK.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BARK_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4384247"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bark_4384247"},{"id":"w_seac_1975789","name":"SEAC","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First-generation electronic computer built in 1950. US SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) demonstrated at US NBS in Washington, DC – was the first fully functional stored-program computer in the U.S.","verdict":"Advance: NIST's SEAC (1950) was the first operational US stored-program computer and produced the first digital image.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEAC_%28computer%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1975789"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_seac_1975789"},{"id":"w_pilot_ace_937690","name":"Pilot ACE","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer. UK The Pilot ACE computer, with 800 vacuum tubes, and mercury delay lines for its main memory, became operational on 10 May 1950 at the National Physical Laboratory near London.","verdict":"Advance: Turing's Pilot ACE (1950) ran at 1 MHz, briefly the fastest computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_ACE","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q937690"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pilot_ace_937690"},{"id":"w_swac_1629241","name":"SWAC","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early computer model. US SWAC (Standards Western Automatic Computer) demonstrated at UCLA in Los Angeles; fastest computer in the world until IAS machine.","verdict":"Advance: SWAC (1950) at UCLA found new Mersenne primes in 1952.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAC_%28computer%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1629241"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_swac_1629241"},{"id":"w_z4_230825","name":"Z4","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer. GER Konrad Zuse leased his Z4 machine to the ETH Zurich for five years. Z4 was a relay-based machine. The corresponding contract was signed in the fall of 1949, and the machine reassembled in Zurich after its arrival in July 1950.","verdict":"Advance: Zuse's Z4 (1945) became the first commercially leased computer, at ETH Zurich in 1950.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Z4_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230825"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_z4_230825"},{"id":"w_turing_test_189223","name":"Turing test","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or indistinguishable from, that of a human. UK Turing Test – The British mathematician and computer pioneer Alan Turing published a paper describing the potential development of human and computer intelligence and communication.","verdict":"Advance: Turing's 1950 imitation game asked whether machines can think and still frames AI debate.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turing_test","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_turing_test_189223"},{"id":"w_edvac_834849","name":"EDVAC","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Second computer after ENIAC. US EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). The first computer to use magnetic tape. EDVAC could have new programs loaded from the tape.","verdict":"Advance: EDVAC (1951) implemented binary stored programs as von Neumann had described.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/EDVAC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q834849"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_edvac_834849"},{"id":"w_a_0_system_277713","name":"A-0 System","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Programming language. US The A-0 high-level compiler is invented by Grace Murray Hopper.","verdict":"Advance: Grace Hopper's first compiler: programs that write programs.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/A-0_System","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q277713"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_a_0_system_277713"},{"id":"w_ibm_701_1653104","name":"IBM 701","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mainframe computer by IBM. US IBM introduces the IBM 701, the first computer in its 700 and 7000 series of large scale machines with varied scientific and commercial architectures, but common electronics and peripherals.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 701 (1952) was its first commercial scientific computer, used for defence and weather.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_701","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1653104"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_701_1653104"},{"id":"w_ias_machine_2535967","name":"IAS machine","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First electronic computer to be built at the Institute for Advanced Study. US IAS machine completed at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, US (by Von Neumann and others).","verdict":"Advance: The IAS machine (1951) at Princeton was copied worldwide, including MANIAC and JOHNNIAC.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IAS_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2535967"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ias_machine_2535967"},{"id":"w_besm_787327","name":"BESM","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of Soviet mainframe computers. USSR BESM-1 is completed. Only one BESM-1 machine was built. The machine used approximately 5,000 vacuum tubes.","verdict":"Advance: Sergei Lebedev's BESM-1 (1952) was Europe's fastest computer at the time.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BESM","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q787327"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_besm_787327"},{"id":"w_transistor_computer_7834322","name":"Transistor computer","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of a computer. UK The University of Manchester team complete the first transistorised computer.","verdict":"Advance: Manchester's 1953 transistor computer was the first to replace valves with transistors.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transistor_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7834322"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transistor_computer_7834322"},{"id":"w_magnetic_core_memory_839647","name":"Magnetic-core memory","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Predominant form of random-access computer memory for 20 years between about 1955 and 1975. US Magnetic-core memory developed.","verdict":"Advance: Jay Forrester and An Wang's core memory (1953) gave reliable RAM for two decades, including on Apollo.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetic-core_memory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q839647"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_magnetic_core_memory_839647"},{"id":"w_fortran_83303","name":"Fortran","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"General-purpose programming language. US FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation), the first high-level programming language development, was begun by John Backus and his team at IBM. The development continued until 1957. It is still in use for scientific programming.","verdict":"Advance: John Backus's FORTRAN (1957) proved compiled code could match hand assembly, still used in scientific computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fortran","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83303"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fortran_83303"},{"id":"w_ibm_650_628643","name":"IBM 650","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer. US The IBM 650 is introduced. A relatively inexpensive decimal machine with drum storage, it becomes the first computer produced over 2000 units.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 650 (1954) sold about 2,000 units, the first mass-produced computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_650","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628643"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_650_628643"},{"id":"w_bendix_g_15_4887139","name":"Bendix G-15","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1956 computer design. US The Bendix G-15 computer was introduced by the Bendix Corporation.","verdict":"Advance: The Bendix G-15 (1956) was an early personal-sized computer for engineers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bendix_G-15","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4887139"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bendix_g_15_4887139"},{"id":"w_semaphore_221682","name":"Semaphore","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Variable that is changed (e.g., incremented, decremented, toggled) depending on programmer-defined conditions, used to control access to a common resource by multiple processes in a concurrent system. NED Edsger Dijkstra invented an efficient algorithm for shortest paths in graphs as a demonstration of the abilities of the ARMAC computer. The example used was the Dutch railway system.","verdict":"Advance: Dijkstra's 1962 semaphores coordinate concurrent processes, a foundation of operating systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Semaphore_(programming)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221682"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_semaphore_221682"},{"id":"w_dot_matrix_printer_584101","name":"Dot matrix printer","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Class of printers. US First dot matrix printer marketed by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: Dot matrix printers (1957) dominated computer printing until the 1990s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dot_matrix_printing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q584101"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dot_matrix_printer_584101"},{"id":"w_algol_188436","name":"ALGOL","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of imperative computer programming languages. US EUR ALGOL, first structured, procedural, programming language to be released.","verdict":"Advance: Structured programming's ancestor; its syntax shaped most later languages.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ALGOL","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188436","https://grokipedia.com/page/ALGOL_60","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1209759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_algol_188436"},{"id":"w_compiler_compiler_1076785","name":"Compiler-compiler","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Program that generates parsers or compilers from source files. UK The first compiler-compiler is released.","verdict":"Advance: Tony Brooker's 1960 compiler-compiler automated parser construction, leading to yacc.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compiler-compiler","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1076785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_compiler_compiler_1076785"},{"id":"w_apl_296187","name":"APL","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Functional, symbolic programming language for operating on multidimensional arrays. US APL programming language released by Kenneth Iverson at IBM.","verdict":"Advance: Iverson's array language; ancestor of modern array programming.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/APL_(programming_language)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_apl_296187"},{"id":"w_transit_651136","name":"Transit","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Satellite navigation system. US The AN/UYK-1 ( TRW-130 ) computer was designed with rounded edges to fit through the hatch of ballistic missile submarines, as part of the first satellite navigation system, Transit.","verdict":"Advance: The Navy's Transit system (from 1960) gave submarines satellite fixes, the precursor of GPS.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_%28satellite_navigation_system%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q651136"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_transit_651136"},{"id":"w_atlas_4816782","name":"Atlas","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Supercomputer of the 1960s. UK ATLAS is completed by the University of Manchester team. This machine introduced many modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory and paging.","verdict":"Advance: Manchester Atlas introduced virtual memory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atlas_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4816782"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_atlas_4816782"},{"id":"w_linc_6458736","name":"LINC","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Minicomputer. US Work begun on the LINC, the brainchild of the MIT physicist Wesley A. Clark in May 1961.","verdict":"Advance: Wesley Clark's LINC (1962) was an early personal lab computer, a forerunner of PCs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LINC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6458736"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_linc_6458736"},{"id":"w_computer_mouse_7987","name":"Computer mouse","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Hand-held device used to move a pointer on a computer display. US Mouse conceived by Douglas Engelbart.","verdict":"Advance: Douglas Engelbart's 1964 mouse, shown in the 1968 Mother of All Demos, became the standard pointer.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Computer_mouse","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7987"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_computer_mouse_7987"},{"id":"w_hp_2100_1616633","name":"HP 2100","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mini computer series by HP. HP Real-Time Executive (HP RTE) – Hewlett-Packard","verdict":"Advance: HP's 2100 minicomputers (1966) ran real-time control in labs and factories.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HP_2100","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1616633"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hp_2100_1616633"},{"id":"w_8_bit_computing_270159","name":"8-bit computing","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer architecture bit width. US Launch of IBM System/360 – the first series of compatible computers, reversing and stopping the evolution of separate \"business\" and \"scientific\" machine architectures;","verdict":"Advance: Byte-addressed computer architecture became the industry standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/8-bit_computing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q270159"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_8_bit_computing_270159"},{"id":"w_sabre_1727367","name":"Sabre","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Global distribution system (GDS). US Sabre launched.","verdict":"Advance: American Airlines and IBM's Sabre (1960) automated reservations, the first large online transaction system.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sabre_(travel_reservation_system)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1727367"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sabre_1727367"},{"id":"w_pdp_8_911888","name":"PDP-8","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First commercially successful minicomputer. US DEC PDP-8 Mini Computer was released. It was the first minicomputer, built by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). It cost US$18,500 (equivalent to about $189,000 in 2025).","verdict":"Advance: DEC's PDP-8 (1965) sold more than 50,000 units at $18,000, putting computers in labs and factories.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PDP-8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911888"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pdp_8_911888"},{"id":"w_fuzzy_logic_224821","name":"Fuzzy logic","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System for reasoning about vagueness. US Fuzzy logic designed by Lotfi Zadeh ( University of California, Berkeley ), it is used to process approximate data – such as 'about 100'.","verdict":"Advance: Lotfi Zadeh's 1965 fuzzy logic handles degrees of truth, used in appliances and control systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuzzy_logic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q224821"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fuzzy_logic_224821"},{"id":"w_supercomputer_121117","name":"Supercomputer","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Type of extremely powerful computer. US The first supercomputer, the Control Data CDC 6600, was developed.","verdict":"Advance: Supercomputers, from the CDC 6600 (1964) to exascale Frontier (2022), simulate climate, weapons and proteins.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Supercomputer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_supercomputer_121117"},{"id":"w_hewlett_packard_9100a_1250052","name":"Hewlett-Packard 9100A","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Programmable calculator. US Release of Hewlett-Packard 9100A, the programmable calculator (first scientific calculator ) from HP.","verdict":"Advance: HP's 9100A (1968) was a desktop scientific calculator that HP's ads called a \"personal computer\".","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hewlett-Packard_9100A","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1250052"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hewlett_packard_9100a_1250052"},{"id":"w_npl_network_22907385","name":"NPL network","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Historical network in England pioneering packet switching. US The NPL network was the first network to implement packet switching in early 1969.","verdict":"Advance: Donald Davies's NPL network (1969–70) pioneered packet switching in Britain, influencing the ARPANET.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NPL_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22907385"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_npl_network_22907385"},{"id":"w_rs_232_191895","name":"RS-232","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Standard for serial communication. ? Introduction of the RS-232 (serial interface) standard by EIA ( Electronic Industries Association ), one of the oldest serial interfaces still (uncommonly) in use today.","verdict":"Advance: The RS-232 serial standard (1960) connected terminals and modems for half a century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RS-232","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rs_232_191895"},{"id":"w_data_general_nova_4134229","name":"Data General Nova","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"16-bit minicomputer series. US Data General shipped a total of 50,000 Novas at US$8,000 each. The Nova was one of the first 16-bit minicomputers.","verdict":"Advance: Data General's Nova (1969) brought 16-bit minicomputing to labs at low cost.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Data_General_Nova","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4134229"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_data_general_nova_4134229"},{"id":"w_datapoint_2200_1172276","name":"Datapoint 2200","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer terminal. US CTC ships the Datapoint 2200, a mass-produced programmable terminal. Its multi-chip CPU provided the basis for the Intel 8008.","verdict":"Advance: The Datapoint 2200 (1970) instruction set became the Intel 8008 and the ancestor of x86.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Datapoint_2200","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_datapoint_2200_1172276"},{"id":"w_kenbak_1_3300214","name":"Kenbak-1","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Very early personal computer. US Kenbak-1 ships.","verdict":"Advance: John Blankenbaker's Kenbak-1 (1971) is considered the first personal computer, though only about 40 sold.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kenbak-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3300214"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kenbak_1_3300214"},{"id":"w_hp_35_1565784","name":"HP-35","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Handheld scientific calculator. US Hewlett-Packard releases the HP-35, the first handheld scientific calculator. This makes the engineer's slide rule obsolete.","verdict":"Advance: HP's HP-35 (1972), the first pocket scientific calculator, made slide rules obsolete.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HP-35","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1565784"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hp_35_1565784"},{"id":"w_portable_computer_1820120","name":"Portable computer","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Self-contained computer that is designed to be moved from one place to another.","verdict":"Advance: Portable computers like Xerox's NoteTaker (1976) and the Osborne 1 (1981) moved computing out of offices.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Portable_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820120"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_portable_computer_1820120"},{"id":"w_public_key_cryptography_201339","name":"Public-key cryptography","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Cryptosystem that uses both public and private keys. 1970s: Public-key cryptography is invented and developed by James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, Malcolm J. Williamson, Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, Ralph Merkle, Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, Leonard Adleman, et al.","verdict":"Advance: Public-key cryptography, found secretly at GCHQ (1970) and openly by Diffie and Hellman (1976), secures every HTTPS connection.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Public-key_cryptography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201339"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_public_key_cryptography_201339"},{"id":"w_micral_3082403","name":"Micral","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer by R2E. FRA Microcomputer Micral N, developed in 1973 by Frenchman François Gernelle, of the company R2E.","verdict":"Advance: François Gernelle's Micral N (1973) was the first commercial microprocessor-based computer.","dependencies":["w_microcomputer_32738"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Micral","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3082403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_micral_3082403"},{"id":"w_internet_protocol_8795","name":"Internet Protocol","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Network-layer protocol for addressing and routing packets. US Development of the Transmission Control Program began by a group led by Vinton Cerf and Robert E. Kahn. Its eventual evolution into a protocol suite for internetworking enabled a network-of-networks to form the Internet.","verdict":"Advance: Cerf and Kahn's Internet Protocol (RFC 791, 1981) routes packets across networks, the basis of the internet.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Internet_Protocol","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8795"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_internet_protocol_8795"},{"id":"w_tv_typewriter_2472480","name":"TV Typewriter","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video terminal that could display text on a standard television set. US The TV Typewriter, designed by Don Lancaster, displayed alphanumeric information on an ordinary television set. It used US$120 worth of electronics components.","verdict":"Advance: Don Lancaster's 1973 TV Typewriter displayed text on a TV set, inspiring hobbyist computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/TV_Typewriter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2472480"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_tv_typewriter_2472480"},{"id":"w_motorola_6800_1126648","name":"Motorola 6800","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"8-bit microprocessor. US Motorola announces the MC 6800 8-bit microprocessor. It is easier to implement than the 8080 because it only needs a single power supply to operate and does not need support chips.","verdict":"Advance: Motorola's 6800 (1974) was an influential 8-bit CPU with a clean design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Motorola_6800","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126648"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_motorola_6800_1126648"},{"id":"w_altair_8800_223493","name":"Altair 8800","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Microcomputer designed in 1974. US The MITS Altair 8800, the first commercially successful hobby computer, is released. An article in Popular Electronics (January 1975), described the computer and invited people to order kits.","verdict":"Advance: The kit computer that launched the personal computer industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Altair_8800","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q223493"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_altair_8800_223493"},{"id":"w_olivetti_p6060_3350692","name":"Olivetti P6060","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Personal computer. Italy Olivetti released the personal computer Olivetti P6060, the first with an integrated floppy disk drive. It was designed by Pier Giorgio Perotto.","verdict":"Advance: Olivetti's P6060 (1975) was an early personal computer with a built-in floppy drive.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivetti_P6060","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3350692"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_olivetti_p6060_3350692"},{"id":"w_mos_technology_6502_255528","name":"MOS Technology 6502","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"8-bit microprocessor. US MOS Technology releases their 6501 CPU. which is pin-compatible with Motorola's 6800, who soon starts a lawsuit against them.","verdict":"Advance: MOS Technology's $25 6502 (1975) powered the Apple II, Commodore 64 and NES.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MOS_Technology_6502","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q255528"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mos_technology_6502_255528"},{"id":"w_ibm_5100_429802","name":"IBM 5100","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Portable computer released by IBM in 1975. US IBM 5100 computer released; with integrated keyboard, display, and mass storage on tape, it resembles the personal computers of a few years later, although it does not use a microprocessor.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 5100 (1975) was a portable computer weighing 25 kg.","dependencies":["w_portable_computer_1820120"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_5100","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q429802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_5100_429802"},{"id":"w_laser_printing_67972035","name":"Laser printing","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electrostatic digital printing process. Laser printer Xerox","verdict":"Advance: Gary Starkweather's 1971 Xerox laser printer produced crisp text from computers, which with desktop publishing remade print.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laser_printing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q67972035"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_laser_printing_67972035"},{"id":"w_intel_8085_468451","name":"Intel 8085","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"8-bit microprocessor invented in 1976. US Introduction of the Intel 8085 chip. An improved version of the 8080, with a modest superset of the 8080s instruction set consisting of only two new documented instructions.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 8085 (1976) simplified 8080 systems with a single 5V supply.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intel_8085","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q468451"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_8085_468451"},{"id":"w_zilog_z80_203315","name":"Zilog Z80","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"8-bit microprocessor. US Z80 chip released by Zilog. It was a superset of the 8080 chip with additional registers and instructions, and using only one power supply voltage. CP/M was originally written for the 8080, but many implementations used the Z80.","verdict":"Advance: Zilog's Z80 (1976) powered CP/M machines, the TRS-80 and Sinclair computers.","dependencies":["intel_8080"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zilog_Z80","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203315"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_zilog_z80_203315"},{"id":"w_kim_1_151863","name":"KIM-1","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Single-board computer. US MOS Technology introduces the KIM-1 microcomputer system as a demonstrator for its 6502 CPU.","verdict":"Advance: MOS's KIM-1 (1976) was a single-board computer for learning the 6502.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/KIM-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kim_1_151863"},{"id":"w_cray_1_1093705","name":"Cray-1","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Supercomputer manufactured by Cray Research. US Cray-1 supercomputer was invented by Seymour Cray. He left Control Data in 1972 to form his own company.","verdict":"Advance: Seymour Cray's Cray-1 (1976) used vector processing to reach 160 megaflops.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cray-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1093705"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cray_1_1093705"},{"id":"w_commodore_pet_946661","name":"Commodore PET","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Home computer. US Commodore introduces the Commodore PET. It comes with 4 KB or 8 KB of RAM, and an integrated cassette deck and 9\" monochrome monitor.","verdict":"Advance: Commodore's PET (1977), with built-in screen and keyboard, was an early all-in-one home computer.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Commodore_PET","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q946661"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_commodore_pet_946661"},{"id":"w_trs_80_model_i_610305","name":"TRS-80 Model I","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Microcomputer launched in 1977, sold by Tandy Corporation through RadioShack stores. US Tandy brought out the TRS-80 with \" Level I BASIC \". Despite simple black-and-white graphics, thanks to the nationwide chain of Radio Shack stores, it became a bestseller quickly. [ further explanation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Tandy's TRS-80 (1977), sold in RadioShack stores, brought computers to main streets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/TRS-80","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q610305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_trs_80_model_i_610305"},{"id":"w_speak_spell_3026802","name":"Speak & Spell","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Handheld educational computer. US Introduction of the Speak & Spell educational toy by Texas Instruments. It consisted of a linear predictive coding speech synthesizer, a keyboard, and an alphanumeric vacuum fluorescent display.","verdict":"Advance: TI's Speak & Spell (1978) taught spelling with a speech-synthesis chip.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Speak_%26_Spell_(toy)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3026802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_speak_spell_3026802"},{"id":"w_motorola_68000_family_937498","name":"Motorola 68000 family","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of microprocessors. US The Motorola 68000 Microprocessor launched, the first of the 68k family. 5+ years later it was used in machines such as the Macintosh, the Atari ST and the Amiga.","verdict":"Advance: Motorola's 68000 (1979) powered the Macintosh, Amiga and Sega Genesis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Motorola_68000_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q937498"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_motorola_68000_family_937498"},{"id":"w_uucp_1047966","name":"UUCP","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer command or set of programs allowing two computers to exchange files and execute commands on the remote machine. US Shortly after the release of V7 Unix, which included UUCP, a protocol for communication over standard telephone lines, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis developed and released Usenet, a global discussion group system.","verdict":"Advance: UUCP (1979) linked Unix machines over phone lines, carrying early email and Usenet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/UUCP","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1047966"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_uucp_1047966"},{"id":"w_wordstar_1435134","name":"WordStar","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Word processor application. US WordStar word processing software released.","verdict":"Advance: WordStar (1978) was the leading word processor of the CP/M era.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/WordStar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1435134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wordstar_1435134"},{"id":"w_atari_8_bit_family_249075","name":"Atari 8-bit family","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of home computers introduced in 1979. US Atari releases the Atari 400/800, high-performance game-oriented home computers based on the 6502 microprocessor.","verdict":"Advance: Popular home computers for games.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249075"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_atari_8_bit_family_249075"},{"id":"w_commodore_vic_20_918232","name":"Commodore VIC-20","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Home computer. United States (US) Commodore released the VIC-20, which had 3.5 KB of usable memory and was based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor. Magazines became available which contained the code for various utilities and games.","verdict":"Advance: Commodore's VIC-20 (1980) was the first computer to sell a million units.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/VIC-20","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q918232"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_commodore_vic_20_918232"},{"id":"w_sinclair_zx81_263250","name":"Sinclair ZX81","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer produced by Sinclair Research. UK Sinclair ZX81 was released, for a similar price to the ZX80 (see 1980).","verdict":"Advance: Sinclair's ZX81 (1981) sold for £50, introducing many Britons to computing.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ZX81","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q263250"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sinclair_zx81_263250"},{"id":"w_xerox_star_978826","name":"Xerox Star","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Workstation. US The Xerox 8010 ('Star') System, the first commercial system to use a WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing Devices) graphic user interface.","verdict":"Advance: The Xerox Star (1981) was the first commercial workstation with windows, icons and a mouse, influencing the Macintosh.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Xerox_Star","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q978826"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_xerox_star_978826"},{"id":"w_bbc_micro_749976","name":"BBC Micro","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of microcomputers by Acorn. UK Introduction of the BBC Micro, announced in December 1981. Based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor, it was a very popular computer for British schools up to the development of the Acorn Archimedes (in 1987).","verdict":"Advance: Acorn's BBC Micro (1981) taught a generation of British schoolchildren; its team designed the ARM chip.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BBC_Micro","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q749976"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bbc_micro_749976"},{"id":"w_intel_80286_622888","name":"Intel 80286","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Microprocessor model. October 9, 1985: Announcement of the Intel 80286 -based AT&T 6300+ with Simultask, a virtual machine monitor developed by Locus Computing Corporation in collaboration with AT&T, enabling the direct execution of an Intel 8086 realmode g…","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 80286 (1982) introduced protected mode for multitasking PCs.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intel_80286","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q622888"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_80286_622888"},{"id":"w_zx_spectrum_23882","name":"ZX Spectrum","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of personal home computers. UK The Sinclair ZX Spectrum was announced, released later in the year. It is based on the Zilog Z80 microprocessor, running at 3.5 MHz with an 8 color graphics display.","verdict":"Advance: Sinclair's ZX Spectrum (1982) sold 5 million units, launching Britain's games industry.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ZX_Spectrum","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23882"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_zx_spectrum_23882"},{"id":"w_commodore_64_99775","name":"Commodore 64","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"8-bit home computer introduced in 1982. US The Commodore 64 is released, retailing at US$595. The price rapidly dropped, creating a price war and causing the departure of numerous companies from the home computing market.","verdict":"Advance: Commodore's 64 (1982) became the best-selling single computer model, at 12–17 million units.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Commodore_64","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q99775"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_commodore_64_99775"},{"id":"w_apple_lisa_371482","name":"Apple Lisa","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Personal computer by Apple Inc.. Lisa Office System 7/7","verdict":"Advance: Early commercial graphical user interface; a costly flop that led to the Mac.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apple_Lisa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q371482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_apple_lisa_371482"},{"id":"w_ibm_personal_computer_xt_34349","name":"IBM Personal Computer XT","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal computer model. US IBM XT released, similar to the original IBM PC but with a hard drive. It had a 10 MB hard disk, 128 KB of RAM, one floppy drive, mono monitor and a printer, all for $5000.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's PC XT (1983) included a 10 MB hard drive.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_personal_computer_xt_34349"},{"id":"w_compaq_portable_2893926","name":"Compaq Portable","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early portable computer. Compaq Portable released, the first IBM PC compatible machine released with an IBM PC compatible BIOS written from scratch.","verdict":"Advance: The Compaq Portable (1983) was the first legal IBM PC clone, opening the PC market to competition.","dependencies":["w_portable_computer_1820120"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compaq_Portable","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2893926"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_compaq_portable_2893926"},{"id":"w_ibm_pcjr_1155069","name":"IBM PCjr","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer. US IBM released the IBM PCjr in an attempt to get further into the home market; it cost just $699. Cheaper alternatives from other companies were preferred by the home buyer, but businesses continued to buy IBM. PC DOS 2.1 (for PCjr).","verdict":"Advance: IBM's PCjr (1984) was a home computer flop because of its chiclet keyboard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_PCjr","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155069"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_pcjr_1155069"},{"id":"w_galaksija_2508544","name":"Galaksija","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Yugoslavian personal computer. Serbia Detailed schematic diagrams for build-it-yourself computer Galaksija released in Belgrade. Thousands were soon assembled by computer enthusiasts.","verdict":"Advance: Voja Antonić's Galaksija (1983) was a build-it-yourself computer that let Yugoslavs evade import restrictions.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Galaksija_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2508544"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_galaksija_2508544"},{"id":"w_lotus_1_2_3_653999","name":"Lotus 1-2-3","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Software. US Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet software launched.","verdict":"Advance: Lotus 1-2-3 (1983) was the IBM PC's killer app.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lotus_1-2-3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653999"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lotus_1_2_3_653999"},{"id":"w_olivetti_m24_1088938","name":"Olivetti M24","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Historical computer. Italy Olivetti M24 was put on sale. This personal computer had good success and was later rebranded by AT&T.","verdict":"Advance: Olivetti's M24 (1984) was a successful PC compatible, sold in the US as the AT&T 6300.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Olivetti_M24","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1088938"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_olivetti_m24_1088938"},{"id":"w_sinclair_ql_602253","name":"Sinclair QL","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal computer by Sinclair Research in 1984. UK Sinclair Research announced its first (and only) personal computer aimed to the business market, the Sinclair QL, at an introductory price of £399.","verdict":"Advance: Sinclair's QL (1984) was a business computer that failed commercially.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sinclair_QL","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q602253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sinclair_ql_602253"},{"id":"w_hp_laserjet_4040290","name":"HP LaserJet","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Laser printer model series produced by Hewlett-Packard. US Hewlett-Packard release the immensely popular LaserJet printer; by 1993 they had sold over 10 million LaserJet printers and over 20 million printers overall. [ paragraph citation needed ] HP were also pioneering inkjet technology.","verdict":"Advance: HP's LaserJet (1984) brought laser printing to offices and desktop publishing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HP_LaserJet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4040290"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hp_laserjet_4040290"},{"id":"w_amstrad_cpc_478829","name":"Amstrad CPC","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of home computers produced by Amstrad. UK Amstrad CPC was introduced first in Britain, later in other European markets as well. The machine was based on the popular 8 bit Z80 CPU. The mainboard (i.e.","verdict":"Advance: An affordable all-in-one home computer.","dependencies":["pc","w_microcomputer_32738"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amstrad_CPC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q478829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amstrad_cpc_478829"},{"id":"w_parallel_ata_230360","name":"Parallel ATA","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Interface standard for the connection of storage devices. US Compaq started the development of the IDE interface (see also 1989).","verdict":"Advance: IDE (1986) made hard drives cheap to connect to PCs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parallel_ATA","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230360"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_parallel_ata_230360"},{"id":"w_motorola_68020_916240","name":"Motorola 68020","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microprocessor model. US Motorola released the 68020 processor.","verdict":"Advance: Motorola's 68020 (1984) was a full 32-bit processor for workstations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Motorola_68020","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q916240"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_motorola_68020_916240"},{"id":"w_expanded_memory_369664","name":"Expanded memory","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"System of bank switching in DOS memory management. US Expanded memory specification, a memory paging scheme for PCs, was introduced by Lotus and Intel.","verdict":"Advance: Lotus, Intel and Microsoft's 1985 expanded memory let DOS programs use more than 640 KB through bank switching.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Expanded_memory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q369664"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_expanded_memory_369664"},{"id":"w_commodore_128_1115919","name":"Commodore 128","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer. US Commodore 128 was released. Based on a complex multi-mode architecture, this was Commodore's last 8-bit computer. Cost: $299.95 for each of the CPU unit and accompanying 1571 disk drive.","verdict":"Advance: The Commodore 128 (1985) combined C64 compatibility with CP/M, Commodore's last 8-bit machine.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Commodore_128","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1115919"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_commodore_128_1115919"},{"id":"w_atari_st_627302","name":"Atari ST","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of personal computer models. The Atari ST, an inexpensive 8 MHz Motorola 68000 -based computer, appeared. Nicknamed the \"Jackintosh\", after Atari owner Jack Tramiel, it featured 512 KB of memory and used GEM graphical interface from Digital Research.","verdict":"Advance: Cheap 68000-based personal computer; a MIDI studio standard.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atari_ST","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q627302"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_atari_st_627302"},{"id":"w_amstrad_pcw_478833","name":"Amstrad PCW","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of personal computers produced by British company Amstrad from 1985 to 1998. UK Amstrad introduced Amstrad PCW 8256/8512, an 8 bit, Z80 based computer system with 256 or 512 KB of RAM, dedicated to word processing and promoted as the alternative of electronic typewriters.","verdict":"Advance: A cheap word-processing computer that sold millions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amstrad_PCW","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q478833"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amstrad_pcw_478833"},{"id":"w_cd_rom_7982","name":"CD-ROM","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Pre-pressed compact disc containing computer data. 1982: A CD-ROM contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback. The 1985 Yellow Book standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format to hold any form of binary data.","verdict":"Advance: Sony and Philips's CD-ROM (1985) stored 650 MB, enabling multimedia software and encyclopedias.","dependencies":["cd_audio"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CD-ROM","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7982"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cd_rom_7982"},{"id":"w_enhanced_graphics_adapter_523204","name":"Enhanced Graphics Adapter","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer display standard. US Enhanced Graphics Adapter released.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's EGA (1984) brought 16-colour graphics to PCs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q523204"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_enhanced_graphics_adapter_523204"},{"id":"w_macintosh_plus_1255728","name":"Macintosh Plus","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer model by Apple. US Apple released another enhanced version of the Macintosh (the Macintosh Plus personal computer) – this one could cope with 4 MB of RAM (for the first time, upgradable via SIMMs ) and it had a built-in SCSI adapter based on the NCR 5380.","verdict":"Advance: Apple's Macintosh Plus (1986) added SCSI and 1 MB RAM, and was sold for nearly five years.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Macintosh_Plus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1255728"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_macintosh_plus_1255728"},{"id":"w_pc_1512_1315930","name":"PC-1512","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal computer. UK Amstrad announced Amstrad PC1512, a cheap and powerful PC. It had a slightly enhanced CGA graphics adapter, 512 KB RAM (upgradable to 640KB), 8086 processor (upgradable to NEC V30) and a 20 MB hard disk (optional).","verdict":"Advance: Amstrad's PC1512 (1986) brought PC compatibles to European homes at £499.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amstrad_PC1512","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1315930"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pc_1512_1315930"},{"id":"w_ibm_personal_system_2_284518","name":"IBM Personal System/2","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Second generation of personal computers by IBM. US On April 2 PS/2 Systems were introduced by IBM. The first 4 models were released on this date.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's PS/2 (1987) introduced VGA, 3.5-inch floppies and the PS/2 keyboard port.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_PS%2F2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284518"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_personal_system_2_284518"},{"id":"w_acorn_archimedes_41357","name":"Acorn Archimedes","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"General purpose home computer. UK Introduction of Acorn Archimedes.","verdict":"Advance: First ARM-powered computer; its chip lineage now runs most of the world's phones.","dependencies":["pc"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Acorn_Archimedes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41357"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_acorn_archimedes_41357"},{"id":"w_connection_machine_1126252","name":"Connection Machine","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Supercomputer. US Connection Machine, an interesting [ attribution needed ] supercomputer which instead of integration of circuits operates up to 64,000 fairly ordinary microprocessors – using parallel architecture – at the same time;","verdict":"Advance: Danny Hillis's Connection Machine (1987) linked 65,536 simple processors for massive parallelism.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Connection_Machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126252"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_connection_machine_1126252"},{"id":"w_amiga_500_384656","name":"Amiga 500","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal computer by Commodore. US Commodore released the Amiga 500 and the Amiga 2000. The Amiga 500 was similar to the original Amiga 1000, but in an all-in-one case with 512 KB of RAM and at a lower price.","verdict":"Advance: The best-selling Amiga; a multimedia and gaming pioneer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amiga_500","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q384656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amiga_500_384656"},{"id":"w_video_graphics_array_17194","name":"Video Graphics Array","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer display standard and resolution. US VGA released (designed for the PS/2) by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's VGA (1987) set the 640×480 baseline that PC graphics kept for years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Video_Graphics_Array","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17194"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_video_graphics_array_17194"},{"id":"w_multi_color_graphics_array_1990686","name":"Multi-Color Graphics Array","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video subsystem built into the motherboard of the IBM PS/2 Model 30. US MCGA released (only for low end PS/2s, i.e. the Model 30) by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's MCGA (1987) offered 256-colour graphics on low-end PS/2 models.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multi-Color_Graphics_Array","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1990686"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_multi_color_graphics_array_1990686"},{"id":"w_ibm_8514_257959","name":"IBM 8514","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video adapter released by IBM in 1987 for use with IBM PS/2 computers. US The 8514/A introduced by IBM. This was a graphics card that included its own processor to speed up the drawing of common objects. The advantages included a reduction in CPU workload.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 8514/A (1987) added graphics acceleration for high-resolution displays.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_8514/A","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q257959"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_8514_257959"},{"id":"w_moving_picture_experts_group_11273","name":"Moving Picture Experts Group","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Working group of experts. Italy Foundation of the MPEG group by Leonardo Chiariglione and Hiroshi Yasuda.","verdict":"Advance: Leonardo Chiariglione and Hiroshi Yasuda's MPEG (1988) set video and audio standards including MP3.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Moving_Picture_Experts_Group","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11273"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_moving_picture_experts_group_11273"},{"id":"w_optical_computer_176541","name":"Optical computer","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer that uses photons or light particles. ? First optical chip developed, it uses light instead of electricity to increase processing speed.","verdict":"Advance: Optical computing promises light-speed processing, now used in AI accelerators and interconnects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_computing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176541"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_optical_computer_176541"},{"id":"w_extended_memory_1143380","name":"Extended memory","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Section of computer memory in PC compatibles. ? XMS Standard introduced.","verdict":"Advance: The XMS standard (1988) gave DOS access to memory above 1 MB.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extended_memory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143380"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_extended_memory_1143380"},{"id":"w_extended_industry_standard_architecture_863838","name":"Extended Industry Standard Architecture","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bus standard for IBM PC compatible computers. ? EISA Bus standard introduced.","verdict":"Advance: EISA (1988), from a group led by Compaq, extended the PC bus to 32 bits without IBM's licensing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extended_Industry_Standard_Architecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863838"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_extended_industry_standard_architecture_863838"},{"id":"w_write_once_read_many_1778670","name":"Write once read many","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Data storage device in which information, once written, cannot be modified. US WORM (Write Once Read Many times) – disks marketed for first time by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: WORM optical discs (1980s) gave archival storage that cannot be altered.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Write_once_read_many","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1778670"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_write_once_read_many_1778670"},{"id":"w_super_video_graphics_array_855204","name":"Super Video Graphics Array","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Graphics display resolution with 800 horizontal pixels and 600 vertical pixels. US The Video Electronics Standards Association, an industry consortium of major SVGA card manufacturers, was formed and introduced the VESA BIOS Extensions standard.","verdict":"Advance: VESA's SVGA (1989) standardized 800×600 graphics across PC vendors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Super_VGA","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q855204"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_super_video_graphics_array_855204"},{"id":"w_sound_blaster_726912","name":"Sound Blaster","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Creative Technology's sound card brand. Singapore Release of Sound Blaster Card, by Creative Labs, its success was ensured by maintaining compatibility with the widely supported AdLib soundcard of 1987.","verdict":"Advance: Creative's Sound Blaster (1989) made PC audio standard, shaping games and multimedia.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sound_Blaster","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q726912"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sound_blaster_726912"},{"id":"w_amiga_3000_471127","name":"Amiga 3000","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer by Commodore. Commodore releases the Amiga 3000, the first 32-bit Amiga. It used a Motorola 68030 processor and the upgraded ECS chipset. Amiga OS 2.0 was released with the launch of the A3000, which exploited its 32-bit architecture.","verdict":"Advance: The first 32-bit Amiga.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amiga_3000","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471127"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amiga_3000_471127"},{"id":"w_multimedia_pc_3327685","name":"Multimedia PC","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Recommended configuration for a personal computer with a CD-ROM drive. Multimedia PC (MPC) Level 1 specification published by a council of companies including Microsoft and Creative Labs. This specified the minimum standards for a Multimedia IBM PC.","verdict":"Advance: The Multimedia PC specification (1991) set requirements for CD-ROM drives and sound.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multimedia_PC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3327685"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_multimedia_pc_3327685"},{"id":"w_dbase_300971","name":"DBase","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Database management system. Vulcan dBase-II Wayne Ratliff RETRIEVE","verdict":"Advance: Wayne Ratliff's dBase (1979) brought databases to microcomputers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DBase","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300971"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dbase_300971"},{"id":"w_cdtv_955368","name":"CDTV","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video game console and multimedia device. Commodore release the CDTV, an Amiga multimedia appliance with CD-ROM drive but no floppy drive.","verdict":"Advance: Commodore's CDTV (1991) was an early CD-based multimedia console.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDTV","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q955368"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cdtv_955368"},{"id":"w_floating_point_unit_733507","name":"Floating-point unit","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Coprocessor for floating point arithmetic. The Intel 80486 SX is released as a cheaper alternative to 80486 DX, with the key difference being the lack of an integrated FPU.","verdict":"Advance: Floating-point units accelerate scientific calculation, integrated into CPUs since the 486.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Floating-point_unit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q733507"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_floating_point_unit_733507"},{"id":"w_philips_cd_i_1023103","name":"Philips CD-i","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home multimedia and video game console. Introduction of CD-i launched by Philips.","verdict":"Advance: Philips's CD-i (1991) offered interactive multimedia but failed commercially.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CD-i","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1023103"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_philips_cd_i_1023103"},{"id":"w_powerpc_600_1088832","name":"PowerPC 600","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microarchitecture. The PowerPC 601, developed by IBM, Motorola and Apple Computer, was released. This was the first generation of PowerPC processors.","verdict":"Advance: The PowerPC 601 (1993), from Apple, IBM and Motorola, powered Macs for a decade.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PowerPC_600","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1088832"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_powerpc_600_1088832"},{"id":"w_386bsd_228413","name":"386BSD","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Operating system. First release of 386BSD: the first fully operational Unix operating system to be completely free and open source, and to be able to ran on PC-compatible computer systems based on the 32-bit Intel 80386 (\"i386\").","verdict":"Advance: The first free Unix for PCs; seeded the BSD open-source lineage.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/386BSD","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228413"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_386bsd_228413"},{"id":"w_amiga_1200_471094","name":"Amiga 1200","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Home computer. Commodore International releases the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000. Both machines included the improved Advanced Graphics Architecture chipset. The 1200 had a 14 MHz 68020 processor; the 4000 had a 25 MHz 68040.","verdict":"Advance: A popular multimedia home computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amiga_1200","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amiga_1200_471094"},{"id":"w_dec_alpha_858065","name":"DEC Alpha","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"64-bit RISC microprocessor. Digital Equipment Corporation introduces the Alpha AXP architecture and the Alpha-based DEC 3000 AXP workstations, DEC 4000 AXP departmental servers and the DEC 7000 AXP enterprise servers.","verdict":"Advance: DEC's Alpha (1992) was the fastest 64-bit RISC chip of its time.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DEC_Alpha","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858065"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dec_alpha_858065"},{"id":"w_pentium_p5_12353724","name":"Pentium P5","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of Intel Pentium 1 microprocessors. Intel releases the P5 -based Pentium processor, 60 and 66 MHz versions. It has over 3.1 million transistors and can achieve up to 100 MIPS. John H. Crawford co-managed the design of the P5; Donald Alpert managed the architectural team;","verdict":"Advance: Intel's Pentium (1993) introduced superscalar execution to PCs, though its FDIV bug cost $475 million.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pentium_(original)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12353724"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pentium_p5_12353724"},{"id":"w_mbone_1751330","name":"Mbone","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Former computer network. Severe Tire Damage made the first live music performance on the Internet, using MBone technology.","verdict":"Advance: MBone (1992) multicast audio and video on the internet, including a 1993 live concert.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1751330"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mbone_1751330"},{"id":"w_motorola_68060_1268094","name":"Motorola 68060","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"32-bit microprocessor. Motorola released the 68060 processor.","verdict":"Advance: Motorola's 68060 (1994) was the final 68k processor, used in Amigas and embedded systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Motorola_68060","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1268094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_motorola_68060_1268094"},{"id":"w_ibm_simon_1321356","name":"IBM Simon","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Smartphone model. IBM releases the IBM Simon a forerunner to the smartphone.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's Simon (1994) combined phone, email and touchscreen apps, the first smartphone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_Simon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321356"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_simon_1321356"},{"id":"w_pentium_214314","name":"Pentium","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Brand of Intel microprocessors. Intel releases the Pentium processor, 75 MHz version.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's later Pentium chips (1994) reached 75–200 MHz, powering the Windows 95 era.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214314"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pentium_214314"},{"id":"w_jaz_drive_707793","name":"Jaz drive","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Removable hard disk storage system. Jaz drive removable hard disk storage introduced.","verdict":"Advance: Iomega's Jaz drive (1995) offered 1 GB removable cartridges but suffered reliability problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jaz_drive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q707793"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_jaz_drive_707793"},{"id":"w_zip_drive_335185","name":"Zip drive","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Removable cartridge disk storage system. Zip drive removable floppy disk storage introduced.","verdict":"Advance: Iomega's Zip drive (1994) stored 100 MB per disk, popular until USB flash drives.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zip_drive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335185"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_zip_drive_335185"},{"id":"w_java_platform_1713118","name":"Java platform","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of several computer software products and specifications. Sun Microsystems first announces Java at the SunWorld conference.","verdict":"Advance: Sun's Java (1995) promised \"write once, run anywhere\", dominating enterprise and Android.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Java_(software_platform)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1713118"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_java_platform_1713118"},{"id":"w_bebox_812806","name":"BeBox","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal computer sold by Be Inc.. Be Inc. launch the BeBox, featuring two PowerPC 603 processors running at 66 MHz, and running their new operating system BeOS.","verdict":"Advance: Be's BeBox (1995) had dual PowerPC CPUs and a multimedia OS, influencing Apple's OS search.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeBox","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q812806"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bebox_812806"},{"id":"w_intel_p6_1364041","name":"Intel P6","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Intel processor microarchitecture. Intel released Pentium Pro, 150, 166, 180, and 200 MHz versions, on one day. It was the first product based on the P6 microarchitecture, later used in the Pentium II, III, M, and Core processors.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's P6 (1995) introduced out-of-order execution to x86, the basis of later Pentium and Core designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/P6_(microarchitecture)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1364041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_p6_1364041"},{"id":"w_opengl_178570","name":"OpenGL","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cross-platform graphics API. 3dfx releases Voodoo, the first consumer 3D accelerator, able to render scenes in real time and in high resolution. GLQuake (an OpenGL port of Quake ) is the first popular game using this new technology.","verdict":"Advance: Silicon Graphics' OpenGL (1992) standardized 3D graphics, used in CAD and games.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/OpenGL","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178570"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_opengl_178570"},{"id":"w_nokia_9000_communicator_3505209","name":"Nokia 9000 Communicator","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mobile phone model. Nokia released the Nokia 9000, the first of Nokia's smartphones.","verdict":"Advance: Nokia's 9000 Communicator (1996) combined phone, fax, email and web, an early smartphone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nokia_9000_Communicator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3505209"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nokia_9000_communicator_3505209"},{"id":"w_toshiba_libretto_2250757","name":"Toshiba Libretto","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Subnotebook computers. Toshiba released the Libretto sub-notebook. With a volume of 821.1 cm 3 and a weight of just 840 g, it was the smallest PC compatible computer to be released at that time.","verdict":"Advance: Toshiba's Libretto (1996) was a 1.1 kg subnotebook running Windows 95.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba_Libretto","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2250757"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_toshiba_libretto_2250757"},{"id":"w_outlook_com_219136","name":"Outlook.com","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Microsoft free web-based email service. Hotmail, founded by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith, is commercially launched on Independence Day in the United States, symbolically representing freedom from Internet service providers. (Hotmail is now owned and operated by Microsoft;","verdict":"Advance: Hotmail (1996) offered free web email from any browser, now Outlook.com with hundreds of millions of users.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Outlook.com","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q219136"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_outlook_com_219136"},{"id":"w_mmx_904336","name":"MMX","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Instruction set designed by Intel. Intel released Pentium MMX, 166 and 200 MHz versions. Its MMX instruction set is designed to increase performance when running multimedia applications.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's MMX (1997) added SIMD instructions for multimedia.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MMX_(instruction_set)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q904336"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mmx_904336"},{"id":"w_pentium_ii_221257","name":"Pentium II","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of Intel microprocessors. Intel releases the Pentium II processor, 233, 266, and 300 MHz versions. It has a larger on-chip cache and expanded instruction set.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's Pentium II (1997) packaged CPU and cache on a slot cartridge.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pentium_II","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221257"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pentium_ii_221257"},{"id":"w_imac_14091","name":"IMac","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"All-in-one desktop computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc. and manufactured by Foxconn. Apple announces the iMac, an all-in-one with integral 15 inch (381 mm) multiscan monitor, 24× CD-ROM, 2× available USB ports, 56 kbit/s modem, two stereo speakers, and Ethernet, but no floppy drive.","verdict":"Advance: Apple's iMac (1998) revived the company with colourful design and USB-only ports.","dependencies":["gui_mac"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14091"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_imac_14091"},{"id":"w_athlon_390562","name":"Athlon","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Brand of microprocessors by AMD. AMD releases an Athlon clocked at 750 MHz.","verdict":"Advance: AMD's Athlon kept CPU competition alive.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q390562"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_athlon_390562"},{"id":"w_transmeta_crusoe_1251174","name":"Transmeta Crusoe","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of x86-compatible microprocessors. Transmeta releases the Crusoe microprocessor.","verdict":"Advance: Transmeta's Crusoe (2000) translated x86 code in software for low-power laptops.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transmeta_Crusoe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1251174"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transmeta_crusoe_1251174"},{"id":"w_asci_white_635527","name":"ASCI White","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Former supercomputer in the United States. IBM delivers the ASCI White supercomputer to the U.S. Department of Energy. This supercomputer was capable of performing 12.3 teraflops, making it the world's fastest at the time.","verdict":"Advance: A nuclear-stockpile supercomputer.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCI_White","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q635527"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_asci_white_635527"},{"id":"w_ericsson_r380_5388230","name":"Ericsson R380","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mobile phone made by Ericsson, released in 2000. The Ericsson R380, the first phone running Symbian OS was released.","verdict":"Advance: The first device marketed as a smartphone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ericsson_R380","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5388230"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ericsson_r380_5388230"},{"id":"w_netburst_1062113","name":"NetBurst","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Intel processor microarchitecture. Intel releases the Pentium 4. The processor is built using the NetBurst microarchitecture, a new design since the introduction of the P6 microarchitecture used in the Pentium Pro in late 1995.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's NetBurst (2000) chased clock speeds at the cost of heat, abandoned in 2006.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NetBurst","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062113"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_netburst_1062113"},{"id":"w_agile_software_development_30232","name":"Agile software development","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Group of iterative and incremental development methods. The Agile Manifesto, which crystallised and named a growing trend towards more \"agile\" processes in software development, was released.","verdict":"Advance: Iterative software development; faster feedback, fewer failed projects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agile_software_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30232"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_agile_software_development_30232"},{"id":"w_blender_173136","name":"Blender","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"3D computer graphics software (free and open-source). Blender, a 3D graphics software package, becomes open-source software after a crowdfunding campaign successfully raises €100,000.","verdict":"Advance: Blender (1994), open-sourced in 2002 after a crowdfunded buyout, became the leading free 3D suite.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blender_(software)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173136"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_blender_173136"},{"id":"w_geforce_fx_series_1028832","name":"GeForce FX series","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of GPUs by Nvidia. Nvidia releases GeForce FX, a family of DirectX 9.0 -compatible 3D cards with extensive support for pixel and vertex shaders.","verdict":"Advance: Nvidia's GeForce FX (2003) brought programmable shaders, though it struggled against ATI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GeForce_FX_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1028832"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_geforce_fx_series_1028832"},{"id":"w_pentium_m_856732","name":"Pentium M","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of Intel microprocessors. Intel releases the Pentium M for notebooks and the Centrino mobile platform. The Pentium M delivers similar or higher performance than the Pentium 4-M while consuming less power.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's Pentium M (2003) prioritized efficiency, its design leading to the Core architecture.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_M","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q856732"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pentium_m_856732"},{"id":"w_athlon_64_294894","name":"Athlon 64","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microprocessor produced by AMD. AMD releases the Athlon 64. The Athlon 64 is built on the K8 microarchitecture and is the first 64-bit processor widely available to the consumer market.","verdict":"Advance: First 64-bit x86 desktop chip.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Athlon_64","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294894"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_athlon_64_294894"},{"id":"w_sony_reader_2037829","name":"Sony Reader","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Line of e-book readers manufactured by Sony. Sony released Librié EBR-1000EP in Japan, the first e-book reader with an E Ink electronic paper display.","verdict":"Advance: Sony's Librié (2004) was the first e-ink reader, preceding the Kindle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sony_Reader","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2037829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sony_reader_2037829"},{"id":"w_geforce_6_series_1028865","name":"GeForce 6 series","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of GPUs. Nvidia releases GeForce 6800, marking the biggest leap in graphics technology for the company. Independent reviews report more than 100% increase in productivity compared to the fastest card on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Nvidia's GeForce 6800 (2004) introduced SLI and shader model 3.0.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GeForce_6_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1028865"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_geforce_6_series_1028865"},{"id":"w_nintendo_ds_170323","name":"Nintendo DS","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Nintendo handheld game console. Nintendo releases the Nintendo DS, introducing dual screens and touchscreen technology to handheld gaming.","verdict":"Advance: Nintendo's DS (2004) brought dual screens and a touchscreen, selling 154 million units.","dependencies":["w_handheld_game_console_941818"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nintendo_DS","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nintendo_ds_170323"},{"id":"w_nokia_770_636488","name":"Nokia 770","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cell phone model. Nokia announces the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet, the first device running Maemo.","verdict":"Advance: Nokia's 770 Internet Tablet (2005) ran Linux-based Maemo, a precursor of tablets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nokia_770_Internet_Tablet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q636488"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nokia_770_636488"},{"id":"w_pentium_d_749081","name":"Pentium D","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of Intel microprocessors. Intel releases the Pentium D, their first dual-core 64-bit desktop processor.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's Pentium D (2005) was its first dual-core desktop chip.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pentium_D","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q749081"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pentium_d_749081"},{"id":"w_athlon_64_x2_294890","name":"Athlon 64 X2","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD. AMD releases the Athlon 64 X2, their first dual-core 64-bit desktop processor.","verdict":"Advance: AMD's first dual-core desktop chip.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Athlon_64_X2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294890"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_athlon_64_x2_294890"},{"id":"w_macbook_pro_214276","name":"MacBook Pro","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Line of Macintosh notebook computers first introduced in 2006. Apple Computer introduces the MacBook Pro, their first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as well as an Intel-based iMac.","verdict":"Advance: Apple's MacBook Pro (2006) used Intel chips, and since 2020 has used Apple's M-series chips.","dependencies":["w_laptop_3962","gui_mac"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MacBook_Pro","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_macbook_pro_214276"},{"id":"w_physics_processing_unit_1140942","name":"Physics processing unit","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Dedicated microprocessor handling the calculations of physics engines in video games. Retail launch of the first dedicated PPU PhysX from Ageia","verdict":"Advance: Ageia's PhysX PPU (2006) accelerated game physics, later absorbed into Nvidia GPUs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Physics_processing_unit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1140942"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_physics_processing_unit_1140942"},{"id":"w_microblogging_92438","name":"Microblogging","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Broadcast medium. Twitter is launched, introducing a new platform for microblogging and social interaction.","verdict":"Advance: Twitter (2006) popularized microblogging, used for breaking news and political movements.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microblogging","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q92438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_microblogging_92438"},{"id":"w_core_2_216334","name":"Core 2","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Intel processor family. Intel releases the Core 2 processor.","verdict":"Advance: Intel's Core 2 (2006) restored Intel's lead with efficient multicore design.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intel_Core_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216334"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_core_2_216334"},{"id":"w_playstation_3_10683","name":"PlayStation 3","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Video game console developed Sony Interactive Entertainment. Sony releases the PlayStation 3.","verdict":"Advance: Sony's PlayStation 3 (2006) used the Cell processor, which was also used in supercomputers.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PlayStation_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10683"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_playstation_3_10683"},{"id":"w_wii_8079","name":"Wii","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Seventh-generation home video game console by Nintendo. Nintendo releases the Wii.","verdict":"Advance: Nintendo's Wii (2006) brought motion controls and casual gaming, selling 101 million units.","dependencies":["w_video_game_console_8076"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wii","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8079"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wii_8079"},{"id":"w_asus_eee_pc_221952","name":"ASUS Eee PC","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Netbook computer line from ASUS; part of the ASUS Eee product family. Asus announces the first Asus Eee PC, launching the netbook category of mobile computers. It initially ran Linux; later models also offered a choice of Windows.","verdict":"Advance: The netbook made cheap portable computing mainstream.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Eee_PC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221952"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_asus_eee_pc_221952"},{"id":"w_phenom_295064","name":"Phenom","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of AMD's multi-core 65 nm processors. AMD releases the Phenom line of high performance processors, positioning the Athlon as a mid-range line.","verdict":"Advance: AMD's Phenom (2007) introduced native quad-core desktop processors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AMD_Phenom","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q295064"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_phenom_295064"},{"id":"w_htc_dream_727665","name":"HTC Dream","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Android smartphone designed by HTC introduced in 2008. The HTC Dream (T-Mobile G1), the first commercially available device to run the Android operating system, was released.","verdict":"Advance: The T-Mobile G1 (2008) launched Android, now the most widely used mobile operating system.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HTC_Dream","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727665"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_htc_dream_727665"},{"id":"w_ipad_1st_generation_59802","name":"IPad (1st generation)","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First product generation of the iPad brand by Apple. Apple releases the original iPad.","verdict":"Advance: Apple's iPad (2010) defined the modern tablet, selling 15 million units in nine months.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IPad_(1st_generation)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ipad_1st_generation_59802"},{"id":"w_chromebook_861508","name":"Chromebook","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Laptop or tablet running the ChromeOS operating system. The first Chromebooks, by Acer and Samsung, go on sale.","verdict":"Advance: Google's Chromebooks (2011) offered cheap cloud laptops that became widely used in schools.","dependencies":["w_laptop_3962"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chromebook","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q861508"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_chromebook_861508"},{"id":"w_hard_disk_4439","name":"Hard disk","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Data storage device. 1956: The hard disk drive is invented by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's 1956 RAMAC disk stored 5 MB on 50 platters; disks now hold 30 TB.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hard_disk_drive","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4439"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hard_disk_4439"},{"id":"w_raspberry_pi_245","name":"Raspberry Pi","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of low-cost single-board computers used for educational purposes and embedded systems. Raspberry Pi, a bare-bones, low-cost credit-card sized computer created by volunteers mostly drawn from academia and the UK tech industry, is released to help teach children to code.","verdict":"Advance: The $35 Raspberry Pi (2012) put programmable computers in classrooms, selling over 60 million.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_raspberry_pi_245"},{"id":"w_next_unit_of_computing_17091767","name":"Next Unit of Computing","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small form factor PC designed by Intel. Intel demonstrates its Next Unit of Computing, a motherboard measuring only 4 × 4 in (10 × 10 cm).","verdict":"Advance: Intel's NUC (2012) made palm-sized PCs mainstream.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Next_Unit_of_Computing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17091767"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_next_unit_of_computing_17091767"},{"id":"w_iphone_5s_14850354","name":"IPhone 5S","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Smartphone from Apple. Apple releases the iPhone 5s, powered by the Apple A7 SoC which the company proclaimed to be the first 64 bit processor to be used on a smartphone.","verdict":"Advance: Apple's iPhone 5s (2013) introduced the first 64-bit smartphone chip and Touch ID.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IPhone_5s","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14850354"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_iphone_5s_14850354"},{"id":"w_ryzen_28845729","name":"Ryzen","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Brand for microprocessors by AMD. AMD launches the Ryzen CPU architecture.","verdict":"Advance: AMD's Ryzen (2017) restored competition in desktop CPUs with its Zen architecture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ryzen","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28845729"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ryzen_28845729"},{"id":"w_video_game_console_8076","name":"Video game console","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Dedicated electronic device designed primarily for playing video games, typically connected to a display. 1972: The first video game console, used primarily for playing video games on a TV, is the Magnavox Odyssey.","verdict":"Advance: Ralph Baer's Magnavox Odyssey (1972) was the first home video game console.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Video_game_console","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8076"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_video_game_console_8076"},{"id":"w_sd_card_466977","name":"SD card","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Removable memory storage for portable devices. Lexar announces the first SD card which can store 1 terabyte.","verdict":"Advance: SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba's SD card (1999) became the standard storage for cameras and phones.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SD_card","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466977"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sd_card_466977"},{"id":"w_15_ai_110960686","name":"15.ai","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Freeware text to speech artificial intelligence web application. March 12 – 15.ai, a free web application that used artificial intelligence to generate text-to-speech voices of fictional characters, was launched.","verdict":"Advance: An early free neural text-to-speech app; a demo of voice cloning's reach.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/15.ai","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110960686"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_15_ai_110960686"},{"id":"w_versatile_video_coding_55517509","name":"Versatile Video Coding","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video compression standard. July 6 – [Novel protocol/standard] – The Versatile Video Coding standard (H.266) was finalised, designed to halve the bitrate of previous formats, reducing data volume and being especially useful for on-demand 8K streaming services.","verdict":"Advance: H.266/VVC (2020) halves bitrates relative to HEVC for 4K and 8K video.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Versatile_Video_Coding","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55517509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_versatile_video_coding_55517509"},{"id":"w_bitcoin_protocol_17001427","name":"Bitcoin protocol","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Peer-to-peer payment network that operates on a cryptographic protocol.","verdict":"Advance: Satoshi Nakamoto's Bitcoin (2009) used proof-of-work to create digital scarcity without a central bank.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bitcoin_protocol","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17001427"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bitcoin_protocol_17001427"},{"id":"w_colonial_pipeline_cyberattack_106768030","name":"Colonial Pipeline cyberattack","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Ransomware attack. Operation of the U.S. Colonial Pipeline was interrupted by a ransomware cyber attack.","verdict":"Drift: Ransomware shut a major US fuel pipeline; cybercrime as pure value extraction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q106768030"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_colonial_pipeline_cyberattack_106768030"},{"id":"w_shadow_library_21040941","name":"Shadow library","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Database of content that is a copy of content that is otherwise obscured or not accessible because of paywalls or other accessibility restrictions. Archivists initiated a rescue mission to secure enduring access to humanity's largest public library of scientific articles, Sci-Hub, due to the site's increased legal troubles, using Web and BitTorrent technologies.","verdict":"Advance: Shadow libraries like Sci-Hub (2011) widen access to research while infringing copyright, a contested trade-off.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shadow_library","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21040941"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_shadow_library_21040941"},{"id":"w_brain_mapping_639842","name":"Brain mapping","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Imaging techniques used to colocalize sites of brain functions or physiological activity with brain structures. The most comprehensive 3D map of the human brain – of a millionth of a brain and requiring 1.4 petabytes of storage space – was published.","verdict":"Advance: Connectome and atlas projects now map neural activity, in 2021 including a cubic millimetre of human cortex at synapse resolution.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brain_mapping","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q639842"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_brain_mapping_639842"},{"id":"w_bitcoin_law_in_el_salvador_107172169","name":"Bitcoin Law in El Salvador","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"El Salvador legislation. El Salvador passed the Bitcoin Law, making it the first country to give cryptocurrency and bitcoin a status of legal tender.","verdict":"Compete: The first country to make bitcoin legal tender; a contested monetary experiment.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bitcoin_Law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q107172169"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_bitcoin_law_in_el_salvador_107172169"},{"id":"w_free_and_open_source_software_506883","name":"Free and open-source software","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Software that is both free (as in freedom) and open-source. GitHub Copilot, a programmer assistant AI, was released. Later FOSS variants of the tool included FauxPilot.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Stallman's GNU project (1983) and later Linux built the free and open-source software that runs most servers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Free_and_open-source_software","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506883"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_free_and_open_source_software_506883"},{"id":"w_fiber_optic_communication_1529430","name":"Fiber-optic communication","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. Fiber-optic communication by Kao and Hockham","verdict":"Advance: Corning's 1970 low-loss fibre made light-pulse communication practical; fibres now carry more than 95% of intercontinental data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fiber-optic_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1529430"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fiber_optic_communication_1529430"},{"id":"w_personal_carbon_trading_1722388","name":"Personal carbon trading","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Generic term for a number of proposed emissions trading schemes under which emissions credits would be allocated to adult individuals on an equal per capita basis, within national carbon budgets. Scientists concluded that personal carbon allowances (PCAs) could be a component of climate change mitigation.","verdict":"Advance: Personal carbon allowances would ration emissions per citizen; the idea has been piloted (Norfolk Island, 2011) but never adopted nationally.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_carbon_trading","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1722388"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_personal_carbon_trading_1722388"},{"id":"w_early_warning_system_5326904","name":"Early warning system","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"System providing early detection of problematic outcomes, typically using sensors, event detection and decision subsystems. Pathogen researchers reported the development of machine learning models for genome-based early detection and prioritization of high-risk potential zoonotic viruses in animals prior to spillover to humans.","verdict":"Advance: Early warning systems, such as Japan's earthquake alerts (2007), give seconds to minutes of warning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Early_warning_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5326904"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_early_warning_system_5326904"},{"id":"w_packet_analyzer_54366","name":"Packet analyzer","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer network equipment or software that analyzes network traffic. A study of data traffic by popular smartphones running variants of the Android software found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out (i.e.","verdict":"Advance: Packet analyzers like tcpdump (1988) and Wireshark diagnose networks and detect intrusions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Packet_analyzer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54366"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_packet_analyzer_54366"},{"id":"w_hyperspectral_imaging_959005","name":"Hyperspectral imaging","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of imaging using a wide range of wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum.","verdict":"Advance: NASA's AVIRIS (1987) brought hyperspectral imaging, now used in mineralogy, agriculture and medicine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hyperspectral_imaging","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959005"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hyperspectral_imaging_959005"},{"id":"w_log4shell_110068433","name":"Log4Shell","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"2021 software security vulnerability. The Log4Shell security vulnerability in a Java logging framework was publicly disclosed two weeks after its discovery. Because of the ubiquity of the affected software, experts have described it as a most serious computer vulnerability.","verdict":"Drift: A logging-library flaw that exposed millions of servers; a reminder of open-source supply-chain risk.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Log4Shell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110068433"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_log4shell_110068433"},{"id":"w_perovskite_solar_cell_18387741","name":"Perovskite solar cell","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of solar cell. Researchers reported the development of a database and analysis tool about perovskite solar cells which systematically integrates over 15,000 publications, in particular device-data about over 42,400 of such photovoltaic devices.","verdict":"Advance: Perovskite cells rose from 3.8% (Miyasaka, 2009) to over 26% efficiency, promising cheap printable solar.","dependencies":["solar_pv"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Perovskite_solar_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18387741"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_perovskite_solar_cell_18387741"},{"id":"w_open_source_robotics_169290","name":"Open-source robotics","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Robotics developed with open-source hardware and free and open-source software, publicly sharing blueprints, schematics, and source code. A university reported the release of 'Quad-SDK' which may be the first open source full-stack software for large agile four-legged robots, compatible with the ROS. [ better source needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Open-source robotics, such as ROS (2007), lets researchers share code and hardware designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Open-source_robotics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169290"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_open_source_robotics_169290"},{"id":"w_agricultural_robot_4414810","name":"Agricultural robot","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Robot in agriculture. News outlets reported a novel agricultural robot for viable weed control using lasers [ image needed ] or \"laserweeding\". There are similar precision agriculture machines that have been reported before, also e.g.","verdict":"Advance: Laser weeding robots cut herbicide use and farm labor.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agricultural_robot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4414810"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_agricultural_robot_4414810"},{"id":"w_autonomous_underwater_vehicle_257406","name":"Autonomous underwater vehicle","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Untethered submersible manned or unmenned.","verdict":"Advance: Autonomous underwater robots for survey and seabed mining.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q257406"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_autonomous_underwater_vehicle_257406"},{"id":"w_media_literacy_1507246","name":"Media literacy","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Encompasses the practices that allow people to access, critically evaluate, and create media.","verdict":"Advance: Teaching people to evaluate sources; a defense against manipulation.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Media_literacy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1507246"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_media_literacy_1507246"},{"id":"w_version_control_189439","name":"Version control","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Activity of managing the versions of one or more files.","verdict":"Advance: Marc Rochkind's SCCS (1972) tracked file revisions, the ancestor of Git.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Version_control","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189439"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_version_control_189439"},{"id":"w_earth_observation_satellite_854845","name":"Earth observation satellite","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial satellite specifically designed to observe Earth from orbit. The first global, interactive AI- and satellite monitoring -based, map [ image needed ] and analysis of plastic waste sites to help prevention of plastic pollution, especially ocean pollution was published.","verdict":"Advance: Landsat 1 (1972) began continuous civilian imaging of Earth, now used for crops, forests, disasters and climate.","dependencies":["spy_sat"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Earth_observation_satellite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q854845","https://grokipedia.com/page/Landsat_program"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_earth_observation_satellite_854845"},{"id":"w_magnetic_resonance_imaging_161238","name":"Magnetic resonance imaging","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Non-destructive technique for imaging internal structures of objects or organisms. 1971 – Magnetic resonance imaging – Raymond Vahan Damadian","verdict":"Advance: Raymond Damadian's 1971 tumour-signal paper and Paul Lauterbur's 1973 imaging method (Nobel 2003 for Lauterbur and Mansfield) gave radiation-free views of soft tissue.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetic_resonance_imaging","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161238"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_magnetic_resonance_imaging_161238"},{"id":"w_internet_television_841645","name":"Internet television","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Distribution of television content via the public Internet. News outlets reported that in July, for the first time, more people watched streaming TV than cable within the U.S. [ globalize ].","verdict":"Advance: Streaming overtook US cable and broadcast television viewing in July 2022.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Streaming_television","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841645"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_internet_television_841645"},{"id":"w_mobile_security_3268325","name":"Mobile security","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Safeguards and best practices against security attacks or exploits that target software vulnerabilities in mobile devices.","verdict":"Advance: Mobile security protects phones that now hold banking, health and identity data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mobile_security","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3268325"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mobile_security_3268325"},{"id":"w_existential_risk_from_artificial_intelli_21715237","name":"Existential risk from artificial intelligence","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hypothesis that artificial general intelligence could result in human extinction.","verdict":"Advance: Serious argument that advanced AI could escape human control; it shapes safety research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Existential_risk_from_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21715237"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_existential_risk_from_artificial_intelli_21715237"},{"id":"w_misinformation_13579947","name":"Misinformation","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Incorrect information with or without an intention to deceive. A research report by NewsGuard indicated there is a high level of online misinformation delivered [ image needed ] – to a mainly young user base – with TikTok, whose usage is increasing.","verdict":"Drift: False information spread at scale; attention captured at truth's expense.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13579947"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_misinformation_13579947"},{"id":"w_anti_money_laundering_2007303","name":"Anti–money laundering","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Activities and regulations to prevent and detect money laundering. News outlets reported the first fully self-supervised anti–money laundering AI software using contemporary suboptimal datasets, LaundroGraph.","verdict":"Advance: Rules to detect laundering; useful but costly compliance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anti%E2%80%93money_laundering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2007303"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_anti_money_laundering_2007303"},{"id":"w_internet_privacy_175975","name":"Internet privacy","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Personal privacy concerning the storing, repurposing, provision to third parties, and displaying of information pertaining to oneself via Internet.","verdict":"Advance: Privacy law such as the EU's 2018 GDPR gives users rights over their data and pushes services to minimize what they collect.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Internet_privacy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175975"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_internet_privacy_175975"},{"id":"w_artificial_intelligence_visual_art_65066631","name":"Artificial intelligence visual art","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Genre of art. Text-to-3D software became sophisticated, shortly after generative AI art. OpenAI released Point-E, a machine learning system that can generate 3D models from text prompts, similar to previously released GET3D and Magic3D by Nvidia.","verdict":"Advance: Generative AI art; creativity tools for everyone, amid copyright fights.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AI_art","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65066631"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_artificial_intelligence_visual_art_65066631"},{"id":"w_electronic_skin_14378123","name":"Electronic skin","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electronics mimicing skin functionalities. Researchers reported a robotic finger covered in a type of manufactured living human skin.","verdict":"Advance: In 2022 Tokyo researchers covered a robot finger in living cultured human skin that heals itself, a step toward more lifelike touch for robots.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electronic_skin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14378123"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_electronic_skin_14378123"},{"id":"w_3_nm_lithography_process_63207578","name":"3 nm lithography process","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Semiconductor manufacturing processes with a 3 nm GAAFET technology node. Samsung announced the first mass production of computer chips using a 3 nm process.","verdict":"Advance: Mass-produced gate-all-around transistors; Moore's law continues.","dependencies":["photolith"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/3_nm_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63207578"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_3_nm_lithography_process_63207578"},{"id":"w_neural_radiance_field_121362472","name":"Neural radiance field","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"3D reconstruction technique using machine-learning. A method for editing NeRF scenes, a novel media technique from 2020, with natural language commands was demonstrated by Nvidia.","verdict":"Advance: Neural radiance fields (2020) reconstruct 3D scenes from photos, used in mapping and film.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neural_radiance_field","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121362472"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_neural_radiance_field_121362472"},{"id":"w_text_to_image_model_113940039","name":"Text-to-image model","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Machine-learning model. A novel potentially significantly more efficient text-to-image approach, as implemented in MUSE, was reported.","verdict":"Advance: Text-to-image models like DALL-E and Stable Diffusion (2022) generate images from prompts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Text-to-image_model","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113940039"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_text_to_image_model_113940039"},{"id":"w_dogfight_830494","name":"Dogfight","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Combat between aircraft, conducted at close range. A first successful autonomous long-duration operation, including simulated combat, of a modified F-16 fighter jet, X-62A, by two AI software was reported.","verdict":"Compete: An AI pilot flew a real fighter jet in a dogfight; autonomous air combat arrives.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dogfight","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830494"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_dogfight_830494"},{"id":"w_speech_synthesis_16346","name":"Speech synthesis","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial production of human speech. A text-to-speech synthesizer, VALL-E, that can be trained to mimic anybody's voice with just three seconds of voice data and may produce the most natural-sounding results to date, was reported in a preprint.","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs' IBM 704 sang \"Daisy Bell\" in 1961, an early synthesized voice that inspired HAL 9000.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Speech_synthesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16346"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_speech_synthesis_16346"},{"id":"w_generative_design_1502022","name":"Generative design","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form finding process that can mimic nature’s evolutionary approach to design. Software for generating 3D dynamic scenes ( text-to-4D ), MAV3D, was reported.","verdict":"Advance: Generative design software explores many options to find lightweight, efficient parts for aircraft and cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generative_design","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1502022"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_generative_design_1502022"},{"id":"w_peremptory_norm_855317","name":"Peremptory norm","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Compelling law (international) that cannot be derogated.","verdict":"Advance: Jus cogens: international-law rules no treaty may override, such as the bans on genocide and slavery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Peremptory_norm","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q855317"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_peremptory_norm_855317"},{"id":"w_brain_reading_4955700","name":"Brain-reading","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Use of brain measurements, e.g., fMRI or EEG, to decode brain stimuli. Researchers demonstrated a non-invasive brain-reading method. It can translate a person's neural activity into a continuous stream of text using fMRI data and transformer machine learning.","verdict":"Advance: Non-invasive fMRI decoders (2023) reconstructed the gist of heard stories from brain activity, a breakthrough that raises mental-privacy concerns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brain-reading","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4955700"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_brain_reading_4955700"},{"id":"w_wireless_mesh_network_6453712","name":"Wireless mesh network","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. A two/multi-robot and beacons mesh communication paradigm for exploration by robotic probes, drones, spacecraft, disaster recovery rovers or underwater robots was reported.","verdict":"Advance: Self-organizing mesh radio nets relay data hop to hop, keeping disaster zones and robot swarms connected without towers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wireless_mesh_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6453712"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wireless_mesh_network_6453712"},{"id":"w_bird_intelligence_182604","name":"Bird intelligence","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Study of intelligence in birds. Researchers showed parrots can use and enjoy using a videocalling system.","verdict":"Advance: Studies of tool-making crows and parrots who video-call each other (2023) reveal that complex cognition evolved independently in birds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bird_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182604"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bird_intelligence_182604"},{"id":"w_open_hardware_159172","name":"Open hardware","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hardware whose design documents are openly accessible to and modifiable by others. Notable innovations: a low-cost open source air pollution sensor (Flatburn), a laser-using drone-based methane plume localization method, and a portable EEG helmet with significant accuracy of decoding thought words to text (DeWave).","verdict":"Advance: Open hardware, from Arduino (2005) to RISC-V cores, lets anyone study and build devices.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Open-source_hardware","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159172"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_open_hardware_159172"},{"id":"w_traffic_analysis_7832483","name":"Traffic analysis","year":1914,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Process of intercepting and examining messages. Researchers demonstrated how pre-installed apps on Android smartphones in China are used for mass surveillance in China.","verdict":"Compete: Analysing who talks to whom, without reading the content, located enemy units from WWI onward, and it now underpins metadata surveillance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Traffic_analysis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832483"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_traffic_analysis_7832483"},{"id":"w_dating_app_28134845","name":"Dating app","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Online dating service presented through a mobile phone application.","verdict":"Advance: Mobile dating apps like Grindr (2009) and Tinder (2012) now account for a large share of new couples, with documented attention-capture design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dating_app","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28134845"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dating_app_28134845"},{"id":"w_digital_literacy_242069","name":"Digital literacy","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"An individual's ability to find, evaluate, and compose clear information from a digital source. Researchers reported ' digital resignation ', calling for regulations and education reform.","verdict":"Advance: Teaching people to evaluate online sources helps them function in a networked economy and resist manipulation.","dependencies":["w_media_literacy_1507246"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Digital_literacy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q242069"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_digital_literacy_242069"},{"id":"w_umbrella_review_104859001","name":"Umbrella review","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Review of systematic reviews or meta-analyses.","verdict":"Advance: Umbrella reviews synthesize multiple meta-analyses, giving guideline writers the broadest evidence summary in medicine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Umbrella_review","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104859001"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_umbrella_review_104859001"},{"id":"w_enshittification_122584861","name":"Enshittification","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Systematic decline in quality of online platforms over time driven by greed. The concept of enshittification about the quality of content on social media platforms introduced in 2022 gained traction.","verdict":"Drift: Platforms decay as they extract value from users; a textbook case of drift.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enshittification","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122584861"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_enshittification_122584861"},{"id":"w_tor_202044","name":"Tor","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Daemon and utilities for an anonymizing network.","verdict":"Advance: Tor (2002), developed from Naval Research Lab onion routing, protects journalists and dissidents online.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tor_(network)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202044"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_tor_202044"},{"id":"w_brain_implant_555840","name":"Brain implant","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain. Researchers demonstrated an open-brain surgery-free brain implant, Stentrode, that can record brain activity from a nearby blood vessel, showing it can be used to operate a computer.","verdict":"Advance: Brain-spine interfaces in 2023 let a paralysed man walk naturally by thought, showing implants can bypass spinal injury.","dependencies":["w_implant_486975"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brain_implant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q555840"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_brain_implant_555840"},{"id":"w_artificial_cell_1176234","name":"Artificial cell","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. A study demonstrated functional integration of a magnetically steered microbot containing neurons, 'Mag-Neurobot', in a mouse \" organotypic hippocampal slice \" as physical (semi-) artificial neurons.","verdict":"Advance: Synthetic cell-like systems; a step toward building life from parts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1176234"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_artificial_cell_1176234"},{"id":"w_implant_486975","name":"Implant","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical device surgically installed in the body to replace, support, or enhance a biological structure. Researchers reported the development of a fuel cell implant powered by blood glucose. It can also release insulin at certain levels and have enough energy to allow smartphone implant control.","verdict":"Advance: Bioresorbable electronic implants (2023) monitor healing and then dissolve, removing the need for a second surgery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486975"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_implant_486975"},{"id":"w_open_source_artificial_intelligence_120785614","name":"Open-source artificial intelligence","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Concept of open applied to AI. Notable innovations: LAION releases a first version of BUD-E, a fully open source voice assistant, an automatic waste sorting system that can distinguish between over 500 waste categories is released, researchers describe an AI ecosyst…","verdict":"Advance: Open-source AI, from BLOOM to LLaMA and DeepSeek, spreads AI capability beyond a few labs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Open-source_artificial_intelligence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120785614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_open_source_artificial_intelligence_120785614"},{"id":"w_optical_storage_2248059","name":"Optical storage","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Storage of data on a medium using marks in a pattern, which can be read back with the aid of light. Researchers describe an approach for an optical disk with petabit capacity,","verdict":"Advance: David Paul Gregg's 1958 optical disc patent led to LaserDisc, CD and DVD.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_storage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2248059"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_optical_storage_2248059"},{"id":"w_openai_o1_130288245","name":"OpenAI o1","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"2024 AI model from OpenAI. DeepSeek releases DeepSeek-R1 on 20 January, a large language model based on DeepSeek-V3 utilising a chain-of-thought process similar to OpenAI o1.","verdict":"Advance: OpenAI's o1 (2024) used chain-of-thought reasoning to improve on maths and coding.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI_o1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130288245"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_openai_o1_130288245"},{"id":"w_2025_ram_shortage_137441622","name":"2025 RAM shortage","year":2025,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ongoing shortage of RAM and SSD. In November, a supply shortage in semiconductor memory begins, marked by significant price increases in consumer DRAM components.","verdict":"Advance: Memory shortage driven by AI data-center demand; a supply-chain stress signal.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025%E2%80%93present_global_memory_supply_shortage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137441622"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_2025_ram_shortage_137441622"},{"id":"w_artificial_intelligence_act_108456694","name":"Artificial Intelligence Act","year":2026,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"European Union regulation on artificial intelligence.","verdict":"Advance: The first comprehensive AI law; it may protect or burden innovation.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_Intelligence_Act","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108456694"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_artificial_intelligence_act_108456694"},{"id":"w_civicrm_142028","name":"CiviCRM","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Free software constituency relationship management suite. 2020 CiviCRM Free program that nonprofit organizations around the world use to manage their mailings and contact databases","verdict":"Advance: CiviCRM (2005) is free software helping nonprofits manage donors and members.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiviCRM","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q142028"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_civicrm_142028"},{"id":"w_2020_2023_global_chip_shortage_106971802","name":"2020–2023 global chip shortage","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"2020–21 economic shortage caused by demand for semiconductor chips exceeding supply. 2020–2023 global chip shortage","verdict":"Advance: Showed how concentrated chip supply chains became a strategic chokepoint.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_global_chip_shortage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q106971802"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_2020_2023_global_chip_shortage_106971802"},{"id":"w_sector_2346003","name":"Sector","year":1567,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mechanical calculator. Fabrizio Mordente publishes a treatise on a proportional compass he invented.","verdict":"Advance: Fabrizio Mordente's proportional compass (1567), refined by Galileo, let gunners and surveyors compute by scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sector_(instrument)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2346003"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sector_2346003"},{"id":"w_slide_rule_190667","name":"Slide rule","year":1622,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Mechanical analog computer. William Oughtred developed slide rules based on logarithms as developed by John Napier and Gunter's line as developed by Edmund Gunter.","verdict":"Advance: William Oughtred's slide rule (c. 1622) turned Napier's logarithms into a pocket analog computer used until the 1970s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Slide_rule","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190667"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_slide_rule_190667"},{"id":"w_pascal_s_calculator_873501","name":"Pascal's calculator","year":1642,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanical calculator. French polymath Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator.","verdict":"Advance: Pascal's 1642 Pascaline added and subtracted with geared wheels to help his tax-collector father.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascaline","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q873501"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pascal_s_calculator_873501"},{"id":"w_pinwheel_calculator_1429194","name":"Pinwheel calculator","year":1685,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Type of mechanical calculator. In an article titled \"Machina arithmetica in qua non additio tantum et subtractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, diviso vero paene nullo animi labore peragantur\", Gottfried Leibniz described a machine that used wheels with movable teeth wh…","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz's pinwheel design, commercialized by Odhner in the 1870s, became the standard desk calculator.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pinwheel_calculator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1429194"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_pinwheel_calculator_1429194"},{"id":"w_difference_engine_628007","name":"Difference engine","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army, first conceived of the idea of a difference engine (first written reference to the basic principles of a difference machine is dated to 1784).","verdict":"Advance: Babbage's Difference Engine (1822) automated polynomial tables; the Science Museum built a working one in 1991.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Difference_engine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628007"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_difference_engine_628007"},{"id":"w_arithmometer_669329","name":"Arithmometer","year":1820,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Digital mechanical calculator. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar invented the ' Arithmometer ' which after thirty more years of development became, in 1851, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator.","verdict":"Advance: First mass-produced mechanical calculator.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arithmometer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q669329"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_arithmometer_669329"},{"id":"w_analytical_engine_485257","name":"Analytical engine","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, designed by Charles Babbage. United Kingdom Babbage produced a prototype section of the Analytical Engine 's mill and printer.","verdict":"Advance: Babbage's design for the first general-purpose computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Analytical_engine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485257"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_analytical_engine_485257"},{"id":"w_audion_1066433","name":"Audion","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electronic detecting or amplifying vacuum tube. United States Audion ( vacuum tube or thermionic valve ) invented by Lee De Forest.","verdict":"Advance: De Forest's triode; the start of electronics.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1066433"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_audion_1066433"},{"id":"w_logic_gate_170451","name":"Logic gate","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Computational equipment, physical or theoretical, that performs a boolean logic function. Germany Walther Bothe built an AND logic gate - the coincidence circuit, for use in physics experiments, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics 1954. Digital circuitries of all kinds make heavy use of this technique.","verdict":"Advance: Walther Bothe's 1924 coincidence circuit was an early electronic AND gate, earning a 1954 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Logic_gate","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170451"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_logic_gate_170451"},{"id":"w_atanasoff_berry_computer_522906","name":"Atanasoff–Berry Computer","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early electronic digital computing device. United States Atanasoff and Berry completed a special-purpose calculator for solving systems of simultaneous linear equations, later called the 'ABC' (' Atanasoff–Berry Computer ').","verdict":"Advance: First electronic digital computing device.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q522906"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_atanasoff_berry_computer_522906"},{"id":"w_colossus_770597","name":"Colossus","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early British cryptanalysis computer. December 1943 – The Colossus computer was built, by Thomas Flowers at The Post Office Research Laboratories in London, to crack the German Lorenz cipher (SZ42).","verdict":"Advance: Tommy Flowers' Colossus (1944) broke Lorenz ciphers at Bletchley Park, the first programmable electronic computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Colossus_computer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q770597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_colossus_770597"},{"id":"w_shift_register_746165","name":"Shift register","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cascade of flip-flops sharing the same clock, in which the output of each flip-flop is connected to the input of the next flip-flop in the chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one position the bit array stored in it. United Kingdom The first Mark 2 Colossus was commissioned. It was a development of the Mark 1 machine and contained 2400 vacuum tubes.","verdict":"Advance: Shift registers store and move bits in step with a clock, used in serial communication and memory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shift_register","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q746165"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_shift_register_746165"},{"id":"w_automatic_computing_engine_4428206","name":"Automatic Computing Engine","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"British early electronic serial stored-program computer. United Kingdom ACE (Automatic Computing Engine): Alan Turing presented a detailed paper to the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Executive Committee, giving the first reasonably complete design of a stored-program computer.","verdict":"Advance: Turing's stored-program computer design.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automatic_Computing_Engine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4428206"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_automatic_computing_engine_4428206"},{"id":"w_trackball_20140","name":"Trackball","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pointing device. United Kingdom The trackball was invented as part of a radar plotting system named Comprehensive Display System (CDS) by Ralph Benjamin when working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service.","verdict":"Advance: Ralph Benjamin's 1946 trackball for Royal Navy radar plotting was an early pointing device.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trackball","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20140"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_trackball_20140"},{"id":"w_assembly_language_165436","name":"Assembly language","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any low-level programming language in which there is a very strong correspondence between the instructions in the language and the architecture's machine code instructions. United Kingdom Development of the first assembly language by Kathleen Booth at Birkbeck, University of London following work with John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine at the Institute for Advanced Study.","verdict":"Advance: Human-readable machine code.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Assembly_language","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165436"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_assembly_language_165436"},{"id":"w_curta_1145419","name":"Curta","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mechanical pocket calculator. The first Curta handheld mechanical calculator was sold. The Curta computed with 11 digits of decimal precision on input operands up to 8 decimal digits. The Curta was about the size of a handheld pepper grinder.","verdict":"Advance: Curt Herzstark's Curta (1948), designed in Buchenwald, was the best pocket calculator before electronics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Curta","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1145419"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_curta_1145419"},{"id":"w_manchester_mark_1_1463814","name":"Manchester Mark 1","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"English stored-program computer, 1949. United Kingdom The Manchester Mark 1 final specification is completed;","verdict":"Advance: The Manchester Mark 1 (1949) introduced index registers and led to the Ferranti Mark 1.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Manchester_Mark_1","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1463814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_manchester_mark_1_1463814"},{"id":"w_moniac_computer_1161046","name":"MONIAC Computer","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fluidic analogue computer simulating the UK ecomomy. United Kingdom MONIAC (Monetary National Income Analogue Computer) also known as the Phillips Hydraulic Computer, was created in 1949 to model the national economic processes of the United Kingdom.","verdict":"Advance: Bill Phillips's 1949 MONIAC modelled the UK economy with flowing water, a hydraulic analogue computer.","dependencies":["w_analog_computer_63759"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phillips_Machine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_before_1950","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161046"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_moniac_computer_1161046"},{"id":"w_fixed_star_430297","name":"Fixed star","year":1600,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Astronomical bodies that appear not to move relative to each other in the night sky. 1600 – William Gilbert rejects the idea of a limiting sphere of the fixed stars for which no proof has been offered.","verdict":"Advance: Gilbert's De Magnete (1600) described Earth as a magnet, founding geomagnetism.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fixed_stars","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q430297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fixed_star_430297"},{"id":"w_kepler_s_laws_of_planetary_motion_83219","name":"Kepler's laws of planetary motion","year":1609,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Scientific laws describing motion of planets around the Sun. 1609, 1619 – Kepler: Kepler's laws of planetary motion","verdict":"Advance: Kepler's laws (1609–1619) described elliptical orbits, the foundation of Newtonian gravity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83219"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kepler_s_laws_of_planetary_motion_83219"},{"id":"w_scientific_law_408891","name":"Scientific law","year":1687,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspects of the universe. 1687 – Isaac Newton 's laws describe large-scale motion throughout the universe.","verdict":"Advance: Newton's Principia (1687) stated universal laws of motion and gravity, a model for scientific law.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scientific_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408891"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_scientific_law_408891"},{"id":"w_bentley_s_paradox_793090","name":"Bentley's paradox","year":1692,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cosmological paradox involving gravity. 1692 – Richard Bentley puts forth Bentley's paradox, the idea that Newtonian gravity is unstable.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Bentley's 1692 question of why gravity doesn't collapse the universe anticipated modern cosmology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley%27s_paradox","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q793090"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bentley_s_paradox_793090"},{"id":"w_proper_motion_193223","name":"Proper motion","year":1718,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Astronomical measure of the observed changes in the apparent places of stars in the sky. 1718 – Edmund Halley discovers proper motion of stars, dispelling the concept of the \" fixed stars \".","verdict":"Advance: Halley's 1718 discovery that stars move showed the \"fixed\" stars are not fixed.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Proper_motion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_proper_motion_193223"},{"id":"w_olbers_s_paradox_33558","name":"Olbers's paradox","year":1720,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cosmological contradiction between the observed darkness of the night sky and a static universe model. 1720 – Edmund Halley puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox (if the universe is infinite, every line of sight would end at a star, thus the night sky would be entirely bright).","verdict":"Advance: Olbers's paradox asks why the night sky is dark in an infinite universe, answered by its finite age.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33558"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1600)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_olbers_s_paradox_33558"},{"id":"w_optical_aberration_211728","name":"Optical aberration","year":1728,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Phenomenon in astronomy. 1728 – James Bradley discovers the aberration of starlight and uses it to determine that the speed of light is about 283,000 km/ s","verdict":"Advance: James Bradley's 1728 aberration of starlight proved Earth moves and refined the speed of light.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aberration_(astronomy)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211728"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_optical_aberration_211728"},{"id":"w_messier_object_14530","name":"Messier object","year":1771,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Astronomical objects catalogued by Charles Messier. 1771: Charles Messier: publishes catalogue of astronomical objects ( Messier Objects ) now known to include galaxies, star clusters, and nebulae.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Messier's 1774 catalogue listed nebulae and galaxies, still used by observers.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Messier_object","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14530"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_messier_object_14530"},{"id":"w_nebular_hypothesis_13599969","name":"Nebular hypothesis","year":1796,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Astronomical theory that the Solar System formed from nebulous material. 1796 – Pierre Laplace re-states the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the Solar System from a spinning nebula of gas and dust.","verdict":"Advance: Kant (1755) and Laplace (1796) proposed the nebular hypothesis, confirmed by protoplanetary disk images.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nebular_hypothesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13599969"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nebular_hypothesis_13599969"},{"id":"w_stellar_parallax_906561","name":"Stellar parallax","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Apparent shift of position of a nearby star against the background of distant objects during Earth's orbital period. 1832–1838 – Following over 100 years of unsuccessful attempts, Thomas Henderson, Friedrich Bessel, and Otto Struve measure the parallax of a few nearby stars; these are the first measurements of any distances outside the Solar System.","verdict":"Advance: Friedrich Bessel's 1838 parallax of 61 Cygni gave the first measured distance to a star.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stellar_parallax","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q906561"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stellar_parallax_906561"},{"id":"w_redshift_76250","name":"Redshift","year":1842,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relative increase in wavelength of electromagnetic radiation in the emission spectrum of astronomical objects. 1842 – Christian Doppler proposes the redshift and blueshift effects, based on an analog effect found in sound. Hippolyte Fizeau discovered independently the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848.","verdict":"Advance: Christian Doppler's 1842 effect explained redshift, letting Hubble measure the expanding universe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Redshift","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q76250"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_redshift_76250"},{"id":"w_heat_death_of_the_universe_139931","name":"Heat death of the universe","year":1852,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Possible of the universe. 1852 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin puts forward the problem of the heat death of the universe","verdict":"Advance: Kelvin's 1852 heat death idea predicted a universe running down, a lasting cosmological question.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_death_of_the_universe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139931"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heat_death_of_the_universe_139931"},{"id":"w_spectroscopy_483666","name":"Spectroscopy","year":1854,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Measurement and interpretation of interactions between matter and electromagnetic radiation of varying frequencies. 1854 – Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, physicist and one of the founders of spectroscopy, publishes Kirchhoff's Laws on the conservation of electric charge and energy, which are used to determine currents in each branch of a circuit.","verdict":"Advance: Kirchhoff and Bunsen's 1859 spectroscopy identified elements by their light, revealing the Sun's composition.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spectroscopy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483666"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spectroscopy_483666"},{"id":"w_heat_death_paradox_5693265","name":"Heat death paradox","year":1862,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Paradox relating to fate of universe. 1862 – Lord Kelvin solves the heat death paradox.","verdict":"Advance: Kelvin's 1862 analysis of heat death questioned the universe's infinite age, foreshadowing Big Bang cosmology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_death_paradox","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5693265"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heat_death_paradox_5693265"},{"id":"w_michelson_morley_experiment_154844","name":"Michelson–Morley experiment","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Attempt to detect the relative motion of matter through the stationary luminiferous aether. 1887 – The Michelson–Morley experiment, intended to measure the relative motion of Earth through the (assumed) stationary luminiferous aether, got no results.","verdict":"Advance: The 1887 Michelson–Morley null result undermined the ether and paved the way for relativity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154844"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_michelson_morley_experiment_154844"},{"id":"w_kelvin_helmholtz_mechanism_477816","name":"Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of energy release of a contracting star or planet.","verdict":"Advance: Kelvin and Helmholtz's contraction theory gave the Sun only 20–30 million years, a puzzle solved by fusion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477816"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kelvin_helmholtz_mechanism_477816"},{"id":"w_radioactive_decay_3332922","name":"Radioactive decay","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Emission of subatomic particles by the decay of an atomic nucleus. 1896 – Henri Becquerel: Radioactivity","verdict":"Advance: Henri Becquerel's 1896 discovery of radioactivity opened nuclear physics, medicine and dating.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radioactive_decay","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3332922"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_radioactive_decay_3332922"},{"id":"w_bohr_model_172948","name":"Bohr model","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Atomic model introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913. 1913 – Niels Bohr publishes the Bohr model of the atom, which explains the spectral lines, and definitively established the quantum mechanics behaviour of the matter.","verdict":"Advance: Niels Bohr's 1913 atomic model explained hydrogen's spectrum with quantized orbits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bohr_model","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172948"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bohr_model_172948"},{"id":"w_general_relativity_11452","name":"General relativity","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Standard and classical physics theory of gravity and space. 1915 – Albert Einstein publishes the General Theory of Relativity , showing that an energy density warps spacetime .","verdict":"Advance: gravity as geometry; essential for GPS and cosmology.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_relativity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11452","https://grokipedia.com/page/Einstein_field_equations"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_general_relativity_11452"},{"id":"w_great_debate_278891","name":"Great Debate","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Astronomy debate held on 26 April 1920 at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis about whether spiral nebulae were different galaxies or part of the Milky Way. 1920 – The Shapley-Curtis Debate, on the distances to spiral nebulae, takes place at the Smithsonian.","verdict":"Advance: The 1920 Shapley–Curtis debate on spiral nebulae ended with Hubble's 1924 proof of other galaxies.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Great_Debate_(astronomy)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278891"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_great_debate_278891"},{"id":"w_wave_particle_duality_193068","name":"Wave–particle duality","year":1801,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Conclusion that quantum objects behave at times like particles and at times like waves. 1801 – Thomas Young demonstrates the wave nature of light and the principle of interference","verdict":"Advance: Thomas Young's 1801 interference experiments showed light behaves as a wave, later revealing wave–particle duality.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193068"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_wave_particle_duality_193068"},{"id":"w_dirac_equation_272621","name":"Dirac equation","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Relativistic quantum mechanical wave equation. 1927 – Paul Dirac: Dirac equation","verdict":"Advance: Paul Dirac's 1928 relativistic equation predicted antimatter, confirmed by Anderson's positron in 1932.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dirac_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q272621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_dirac_equation_272621"},{"id":"w_hubble_lema_tre_law_179916","name":"Hubble–Lemaître law","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Observation in physical cosmology. 1929 – Edwin Hubble demonstrates the linear redshift-distance relationship and thus shows the expansion of the universe.","verdict":"Advance: Hubble's 1929 redshift–distance relation, anticipated by Lemaître in 1927, showed the universe expands.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hubble's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179916"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hubble_lema_tre_law_179916"},{"id":"w_radio_wave_4262","name":"Radio wave","year":1894,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Type of electromagnetic radiation. Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi begins developing the first radio wave based wireless telegraphy communication system","verdict":"Advance: Marconi's 1894–95 radio-wave signalling began wireless communication, which crossed the Atlantic by 1901.","dependencies":["w_electromagnetic_radiation_12969754"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radio_wave","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4262"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_radio_wave_4262"},{"id":"w_cosmological_principle_319903","name":"Cosmological principle","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Notion that the spatial distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic at large scales. 1933 – Edward Milne names and formalizes the cosmological principle.","verdict":"Advance: Edward Milne's 1933 cosmological principle assumed homogeneity, supported by CMB observations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cosmological_principle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319903"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cosmological_principle_319903"},{"id":"w_vacuum_energy_1143773","name":"Vacuum energy","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Background energy existing in space. 1934 – Georges Lemaître interprets the cosmological constant as due to a vacuum energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state.","verdict":"Advance: Lemaître's 1934 vacuum energy anticipated dark energy, discovered in 1998.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vacuum_energy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143773"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vacuum_energy_1143773"},{"id":"w_stellar_nucleosynthesis_1057093","name":"Stellar nucleosynthesis","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Process by which the natural abundances of the chemical elements within stars change due to nuclear fusion reactions in the cores and their overlying mantles. 1920: Arthur Eddington: Stellar nucleosynthesis","verdict":"Advance: Eddington (1920) and Bethe (1939) explained how stars fuse elements, completed by B²FH in 1957.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stellar_nucleosynthesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1057093"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stellar_nucleosynthesis_1057093"},{"id":"w_dirac_large_numbers_hypothesis_1370759","name":"Dirac large numbers hypothesis","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"The hypothesis that the numerical similarity between the proton–electron gravitational force–electrical force ratio and the classical electron radius–age of the universe ratio is not a coincidence. 1938 – Paul Dirac suggests the large numbers hypothesis, that the gravitational constant may be small because it is decreasing slowly with time.","verdict":"Advance: Dirac's 1937 large-numbers hypothesis suggested varying constants, not confirmed by observation.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dirac_large_numbers_hypothesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1370759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_dirac_large_numbers_hypothesis_1370759"},{"id":"w_alpher_bethe_gamow_theory_2166490","name":"Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scientific theory. 1948 – Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe ( \"in absentia\" ), and George Gamow examine element synthesis in a rapidly expanding and cooling universe, and suggest that the elements were produced by rapid neutron capture.","verdict":"Advance: Big Bang nucleosynthesis explained the light elements.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2166490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_alpher_bethe_gamow_theory_2166490"},{"id":"w_steady_state_model_272612","name":"Steady-state model","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Alternative to the Big Bang model of the evolution of the universe. 1948 – Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle propose steady state cosmologies based on the perfect cosmological principle.","verdict":"Advance: Bondi, Gold and Hoyle's 1948 steady-state universe was a serious rival until the CMB discovery in 1965.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steady-state_model","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q272612"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_steady_state_model_272612"},{"id":"w_cosmic_microwave_background_15605","name":"Cosmic microwave background","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electromagnetic radiation as a remnant from an early stage of the universe in Big Bang cosmology. 1948 – George Gamow predicts the existence of the cosmic microwave background radiation by considering the behavior of primordial radiation in an expanding universe.","verdict":"Advance: Alpher and Herman's 1948 prediction of relic radiation was confirmed by Penzias and Wilson in 1965.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cosmic_microwave_background","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15605"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1964)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cosmic_microwave_background_15605"},{"id":"w_plasma_cosmology_2189517","name":"Plasma cosmology","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1965 – Hannes Alfvén proposes the now-discounted concept of ambiplasma to explain baryon asymmetry and supports the idea of an infinite universe.","verdict":"Advance: Hannes Alfvén's 1965 plasma cosmology, an alternative to the Big Bang, did not match observations such as the CMB.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plasma_cosmology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2189517"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_plasma_cosmology_2189517"},{"id":"w_baryogenesis_790454","name":"Baryogenesis","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hypothesized processes that could produce baryonic asymmetry, favoring matter (baryons) over antimatter (antibaryons). 1967 – Andrei Sakharov presents the requirements for baryogenesis, a baryon - antibaryon asymmetry in the universe.","verdict":"Advance: Andrei Sakharov's 1967 conditions explain how the universe came to have more matter than antimatter.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Baryogenesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q790454"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_baryogenesis_790454"},{"id":"w_spectral_line_212111","name":"Spectral line","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Optical phenomenon. 1967 – John Bahcall, Wal Sargent, and Maarten Schmidt measure the fine-structure splitting of spectral lines in 3C191 and thereby show that the fine-structure constant does not vary significantly with time.","verdict":"Advance: Bahcall, Sargent and Schmidt's 1967 quasar spectra tested whether fundamental constants vary over time.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spectral_line","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212111"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spectral_line_212111"},{"id":"w_horizon_problem_590581","name":"Horizon problem","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cosmological fine-tuning problem. 1969 – Charles Misner formally presents the Big Bang horizon problem.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Misner's 1969 horizon problem asked why the CMB is uniform, which inflation addressed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horizon_problem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q590581"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_horizon_problem_590581"},{"id":"w_natural_nuclear_fission_reactor_64470499","name":"Natural nuclear fission reactor","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Naturally occurring uranium deposit where self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions have occurred. 1976 – Alexander Shlyakhter uses samarium ratios from the Oklo prehistoric natural nuclear fission reactor in Gabon to show that some laws of physics have remained unchanged for over two billion years.","verdict":"Advance: In 1972 French scientists found that Oklo, Gabon, hosted natural fission reactors about 2 billion years ago.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reaction_238323"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q64470499"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_natural_nuclear_fission_reactor_64470499"},{"id":"w_cfa2_great_wall_1139177","name":"CfA2 Great Wall","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"One of the largest known superstructures in the Universe. 1988 – The CfA2 Great Wall is discovered in the CfA2 redshift survey.","verdict":"Advance: Margaret Geller and John Huchra's 1989 CfA2 Great Wall revealed huge cosmic structures.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CfA2_Great_Wall","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1139177"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cfa2_great_wall_1139177"},{"id":"w_great_attractor_656857","name":"Great Attractor","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gravity anomaly. 1988 – Measurements of galaxy large-scale flows provide evidence for the Great Attractor.","verdict":"Advance: Lynden-Bell's \"Seven Samurai\" in 1987 detected a mass concentration pulling the Milky Way, the Great Attractor.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Great_Attractor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q656857"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_great_attractor_656857"},{"id":"w_hubble_deep_field_741255","name":"Hubble Deep Field","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Multiple exposure image of deep space in the constellation Ursa Major. 1996 – The first Hubble Deep Field is released, providing a clear view of very distant galaxies when the universe was around one-third of its present age.","verdict":"Advance: The 1995–96 Hubble Deep Field revealed thousands of distant galaxies in a tiny patch of sky.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hubble_Deep_Field","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741255"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hubble_deep_field_741255"},{"id":"w_supernova_cosmology_project_2273477","name":"Supernova Cosmology Project","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cosmology group. 1998 – The Supernova Cosmology Project and High-Z Supernova Search Team discover cosmic acceleration based on distances to Type Ia supernovae, providing the first direct evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant.","verdict":"Advance: The Supernova Cosmology Project and High-Z team's 1998 discovery of accelerating expansion earned the 2011 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_Cosmology_Project","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2273477"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_supernova_cosmology_project_2273477"},{"id":"w_2df_galaxy_redshift_survey_2815842","name":"2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Astronomical survey. 2001 – The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF) by an Australian/British team gave strong evidence that the matter density is near 25% of critical density.","verdict":"Advance: Mapped 220,000 galaxies and pinned down the large-scale structure of the universe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2815842"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_2df_galaxy_redshift_survey_2815842"},{"id":"w_gravitational_wave_190035","name":"Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar (indirect gravitational waves)","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Propagating spacetime ripple. 1974: Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover indirect evidence for gravitational wave radiation in the Hulse–Taylor binary","verdict":"Advance: Hulse and Taylor's 1974 binary pulsar showed orbital decay matching gravitational-wave emission, earning the 1993 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gravitational_wave","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190035"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2015)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gravitational_wave_190035"},{"id":"w_event_horizon_telescope_3944788","name":"Event Horizon Telescope","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Project to create a global interferometric telescope array. 2019 – The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration publishes the image of the black hole at the center of the M87 Galaxy.","verdict":"Advance: The Event Horizon Telescope's 2019 image of M87* was the first picture of a black hole's shadow.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Event_Horizon_Telescope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3944788"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_event_horizon_telescope_3944788"},{"id":"w_expansion_of_the_universe_1129469","name":"Expansion of the universe","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Increase in distance between parts of the universe over time. 1929 – Edwin Hubble: Expansion of the universe confirmed","verdict":"Advance: Lemaître's 1927 theory and Hubble's 1929 data established cosmic expansion, the basis of Big Bang cosmology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Expansion_of_the_universe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1129469"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_expansion_of_the_universe_1129469"},{"id":"w_vigen_re_cipher_55516","name":"Vigenère cipher","year":1553,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Simple type of polyalphabetic encryption system. 1553 – Bellaso invents Vigenère cipher","verdict":"Advance: Giovan Battista Bellaso's 1553 polyalphabetic cipher resisted attack for three centuries until Kasiski broke it in 1863.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vigen%C3%A8re_cipher","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55516"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_vigen_re_cipher_55516"},{"id":"w_jefferson_disk_1063471","name":"Jefferson disk","year":1795,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cipher system invented by Thomas Jefferson. 1795 – Thomas Jefferson invents the Jefferson disk cipher, reinvented over 100 years later by Etienne Bazeries","verdict":"Advance: Jefferson's wheel cipher (1795), reinvented as the US Army M-94, secured military messages into World War II.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jefferson_disk","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1063471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_jefferson_disk_1063471"},{"id":"w_electrical_telegraph_6501061","name":"Ronalds' electrical telegraph","year":1816,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Early system for transmitting text over wires. English inventor Francis Ronalds built the first working electric telegraph.","verdict":"Advance: Francis Ronalds sent signals through 8 miles of wire in his Hammersmith garden in 1816, but the Admiralty called telegraphs \"wholly unnecessary\".","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrical_telegraph","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6501061"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_electrical_telegraph_6501061"},{"id":"w_playfair_cipher_829915","name":"Playfair cipher","year":1854,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early block substitution cipher. 1854 – Charles Wheatstone invents the Playfair cipher","verdict":"Advance: Wheatstone's 1854 Playfair cipher encrypted letter pairs and was used in the Boer War and World War I.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Playfair_cipher","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q829915"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_playfair_cipher_829915"},{"id":"w_kerckhoffs_s_principle_1331187","name":"Kerckhoffs’s principle","year":1883,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cryptographic principle. 1883 – Auguste Kerckhoffs ' La Cryptographie militare published, containing his celebrated laws of cryptography","verdict":"Advance: Kerckhoffs's 1883 principle, that security must lie only in the key, is the foundation of modern open cryptography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kerckhoffs's_principle","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1331187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kerckhoffs_s_principle_1331187"},{"id":"w_beale_ciphers_812923","name":"Beale ciphers","year":1885,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A set of three ciphertexts. 1885 – Beale ciphers published","verdict":"Advance: The Beale ciphers (1885) claim to locate buried treasure, unsolved and perhaps a hoax (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Beale_ciphers","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q812923"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_beale_ciphers_812923"},{"id":"w_teleprinter_66196","name":"Teleprinter","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device for transmitting messages in written form by electrical signals. 1917 – Gilbert Vernam develops first practical implementation of a teletype cipher, now known as a stream cipher and, later, with Joseph Mauborgne the one-time pad","verdict":"Advance: Gilbert Vernam's 1917 teleprinter with paper-tape cipher led to the one-time pad, the only provably unbreakable encryption.","dependencies":["w_electrical_telegraph_6501061"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Teleprinter","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q66196"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_teleprinter_66196"},{"id":"w_zimmermann_telegram_154091","name":"Zimmermann telegram","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1917 World War I telegram from Germany to Mexico proposing an alliance. 1917 – Zimmermann telegram intercepted and decrypted, advancing U.S. entry into World War I","verdict":"Compete: Germany's intercepted offer to Mexico; British codebreaking helped bring the US into WWI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154091"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_zimmermann_telegram_154091"},{"id":"w_washington_naval_conference_1050213","name":"Washington Naval Conference","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Disarmament convention held by the United States from November 1921 to February 1922. 1921 – Washington Naval Conference – U.S. negotiating team aided by decryption of Japanese diplomatic telegrams","verdict":"Advance: The first great arms-limitation treaty, capping battleship fleets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Washington_Naval_Conference","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1050213"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_washington_naval_conference_1050213"},{"id":"w_enigma_150758","name":"Breaking Enigma (Rejewski)","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"German cipher machine. c. 1932 – first break of German Army Enigma by Marian Rejewski in Poland","verdict":"Compete: Polish cryptanalysts broke Enigma; their work made Allied codebreaking possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Enigma_machine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q150758"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1918)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_enigma_150758"},{"id":"w_purple_1197850","name":"Breaking the Purple cipher","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese diplomatic code named Purple by the US. 1940 – Break of Japan's PURPLE machine cipher by SIS team","verdict":"Compete: William Friedman's US Army team reconstructed Japan's Purple machine in 1940 without ever seeing one, reading diplomatic traffic all through the war.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Type_B_Cipher_Machine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1197850"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_purple_1197850"},{"id":"w_japanese_naval_codes_734176","name":"Breaking Japanese naval codes (JN-25)","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ciphers used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in World War II. June 1942 – Battle of Midway where U.S. partial break into Dec 41 edition of JN-25 leads to turning-point victory over Japan","verdict":"Compete: Breaking JN-25 let US Navy codebreakers foresee the Midway attack in June 1942, where four Japanese carriers were sunk, the turning point in the Pacific.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Japanese_naval_codes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q734176"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_japanese_naval_codes_734176"},{"id":"w_sigaba_1121818","name":"SIGABA","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"US encryption machine, used from World War II until the 1950s. 1944 – Patent application filed on SIGABA code machine used by U.S. in World War II. Kept secret, it finally issues in 2001","verdict":"Advance: SIGABA's irregular rotor stepping was never broken in WWII, protecting US communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SIGABA","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1121818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sigaba_1121818"},{"id":"w_venona_project_696328","name":"Venona project","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"WWII US counterintelligence project. 1946 – The Venona project 's first break into Soviet espionage traffic from the early 1940s","verdict":"Compete: Venona decrypted some 3,000 Soviet cables, exposing atomic spies like Klaus Fuchs and the Rosenbergs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venona_project","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q696328"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_venona_project_696328"},{"id":"w_kl_7_2511509","name":"KL-7","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":2,"summary":"Off-line non-reciprocal rotor encryption machine. 1951 – U.S. National Security Agency founded. KL-7 rotor machine introduced sometime thereafter.","verdict":"Compete: The NSA's KL-7 rotor machine (1952) secured NATO communications for decades until the Walker spy ring compromised it.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/KL-7","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2511509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_kl_7_2511509"},{"id":"w_quantum_state_230883","name":"Quantum state","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"State of an isolated quantum system, represented as an element of a projective Hilbert space. 1970 – Using quantum states to encode information is first proposed: Stephen Wiesner invents conjugate coding and applies it to design “money physically impossible to counterfeit” (still technologically unfeasible today).","verdict":"Advance: Quantum states, encoded in wavefunctions or density matrices, became the working unit of quantum information.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_state","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230883"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quantum_state_230883"},{"id":"w_feistel_cipher_1044361","name":"Feistel cipher","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Block cipher design construction. 1974? – Horst Feistel develops Feistel network block cipher design.","verdict":"Advance: Horst Feistel's 1973 network design made DES and many block ciphers invertible.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Feistel_cipher","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1044361"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_feistel_cipher_1044361"},{"id":"w_data_encryption_standard_135035","name":"Data Encryption Standard","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early unclassified symmetric-key block cipher. 1976 – The Data Encryption Standard published as an official Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the United States.","verdict":"Advance: DES (1977) was the first public encryption standard, used in banking until it was broken in 1998.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Data_Encryption_Standard","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135035"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_data_encryption_standard_135035"},{"id":"w_mceliece_cryptosystem_1042583","name":"McEliece cryptosystem","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Asymmetric encryption algorithm based on the NP-hard problem of decoding a general linear code. 1978 – Robert McEliece invents the McEliece cryptosystem, the first asymmetric encryption algorithm to use randomization in the encryption process.","verdict":"Advance: Robert McEliece's 1978 code-based cryptosystem resists quantum attack, a candidate for post-quantum security.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/McEliece_cryptosystem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1042583"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mceliece_cryptosystem_1042583"},{"id":"w_computer_fraud_and_abuse_act_5157437","name":"Computer Fraud and Abuse Act","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1986 United States cybersecurity law. 1986 – After an increasing number of break-ins to government and corporate computers, United States Congress passes the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which makes it a crime to break into computer systems.","verdict":"Advance: The 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act made unauthorized computer access a federal crime, the first major hacking law, though critics call its scope overly broad.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5157437"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_computer_fraud_and_abuse_act_5157437"},{"id":"w_one_time_pad_150474","name":"One-time pad","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Encryption technique utilizing a one-time pre-shared key at least as long as the encrypted message. 1988 – African National Congress uses computer-based one-time pads to build a network inside South Africa.","verdict":"Advance: Vernam and Mauborgne's one-time pad (1917) is the only provably unbreakable cipher if keys are never reused.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/One-time_pad","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q150474"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_one_time_pad_150474"},{"id":"w_transport_layer_security_206494","name":"Transport Layer Security","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cryptographic protocols for securing data in transit. 1994 – Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption protocol released by Netscape.","verdict":"Advance: Netscape's SSL (1995) and successor TLS encrypt web traffic, enabling e-commerce.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transport_Layer_Security","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206494"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transport_layer_security_206494"},{"id":"w_factorization_188804","name":"Factorization","year":1260,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"(mathematical) decomposition into a product. 1260 – Al-Farisi gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorization and combinatorial methods.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Farisi's 13th-century work on factorization and divisor sums anticipated later number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Factorization","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188804"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_factorization_188804"},{"id":"w_rc4_846955","name":"RC4","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stream cipher. 1994 – Formerly proprietary, but un-patented, RC4 cipher algorithm is published on the Internet.","verdict":"Advance: Ron Rivest's RC4 (1987), leaked in 1994, was widely used until biases broke it.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RC4","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1987)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rc4_846955"},{"id":"w_rsa_factoring_challenge_1785397","name":"RSA Factoring Challenge","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computational number theory challenge aimed at factorizing a given set of semi-prime numbers. 1994 – First RSA Factoring Challenge from 1977 is decrypted as The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage.","verdict":"Advance: RSA Laboratories' 1991 challenge tracked factoring progress, informing key sizes.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RSA_Factoring_Challenge","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1785397"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1991)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rsa_factoring_challenge_1785397"},{"id":"w_openpgp_2141493","name":"OpenPGP","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Encryption standard. July 1997 – OpenPGP specification (RFC 2440) released","verdict":"Advance: OpenPGP (RFC 2440, 1998) standardized Zimmermann's PGP email encryption.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenPGP","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2141493"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_openpgp_2141493"},{"id":"w_decss_1179498","name":"DeCSS","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Free open-source program to decode DVDs with encryption. October 1999 – DeCSS, a computer program capable of decrypting content on a DVD, is published on the Internet.","verdict":"Advance: DeCSS (1999) broke DVD encryption, triggering legal battles over code as speech.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DeCSS","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1179498"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_decss_1179498"},{"id":"w_advanced_encryption_standard_190746","name":"Advanced Encryption Standard","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Block cipher standard. 2001 – Belgian Rijndael algorithm selected as the U.S. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) after a five-year public search process by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)","verdict":"Advance: Open, global encryption standard securing most of the world's data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Advanced_Encryption_Standard","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190746"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1998)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_advanced_encryption_standard_190746"},{"id":"w_coordinated_vulnerability_disclosure_613868","name":"Coordinated vulnerability disclosure","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ethical vulnerability disclosure model in which a vulnerability or an issue is withheld from public disclosure until it has been patched or after a period of time. November 2001 – Microsoft and its allies vow to end \"full disclosure\" of security vulnerabilities by replacing it with \"responsible\" disclosure guidelines","verdict":"Advance: Coordinated disclosure gives vendors time to patch before details go public, now standard practice in security.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coordinated_vulnerability_disclosure","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q613868"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_coordinated_vulnerability_disclosure_613868"},{"id":"w_nessie_1663719","name":"NESSIE","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"European research program in cryptography, 2000-2003. 2002 – NESSIE project releases final report / selections","verdict":"Advance: Europe's NESSIE project (2000–03) evaluated cryptographic primitives, selecting Camellia among others.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NESSIE","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1663719"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nessie_1663719"},{"id":"w_md5_185235","name":"MD5","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Message-digest hashing algorithm. 2004 – The hash MD5 is shown to be vulnerable to practical collision attack","verdict":"Advance: Xiaoyun Wang's 2004 MD5 collisions broke the hash, later exploited by the Flame malware in 2012.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MD5","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185235"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1991)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_md5_185235"},{"id":"w_wired_equivalent_privacy_273673","name":"Wired Equivalent Privacy","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Deprecated security algorithm for wireless networks. 2005 – Agents from the U.S. FBI demonstrate their ability to crack WEP using publicly available tools","verdict":"Advance: WEP's broken RC4 encryption, cracked by FBI agents in minutes in 2005, pushed Wi-Fi to WPA.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q273673"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wired_equivalent_privacy_273673"},{"id":"w_nist_hash_function_competition_15229223","name":"NIST hash function competition","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Competition to develop SHA-3. November 2, 2007 – NIST hash function competition announced.","verdict":"Advance: NIST's 2007 competition chose Keccak as SHA-3 in 2012, an open model for cryptographic standards.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NIST_hash_function_competition","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15229223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nist_hash_function_competition_15229223"},{"id":"w_high_bandwidth_digital_content_protectio_1063710","name":"High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Digital copy protection. 2010 – The master key for High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) and the private signing key for the Sony PlayStation 3 game console are recovered and published using separate cryptoanalytic attacks. PGP Corp.","verdict":"Drift: Copy-protection that mostly inconveniences paying customers; rent defense, not capability.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-bandwidth_Digital_Content_Protection","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1063710"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_high_bandwidth_digital_content_protectio_1063710"},{"id":"w_sha_3_1190947","name":"SHA-3","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of cryptographic hash functions. 2012 – NIST selects the Keccak algorithm as the winner of its SHA-3 hash function competition.","verdict":"Advance: NIST chose Keccak as SHA-3 in 2012, a sponge construction independent of SHA-2's design.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SHA-3","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1190947"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2008)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sha_3_1190947"},{"id":"w_global_surveillance_disclosures_2013_pre_13644106","name":"Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Disclosures of NSA and related global espionage. 2013 – Edward Snowden discloses a vast trove of classified documents from NSA. See Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)","verdict":"Advance: Snowden's leaks exposed mass surveillance and forced reforms; a check on state power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowden_disclosures","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13644106"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_global_surveillance_disclosures_2013_pre_13644106"},{"id":"w_dual_ec_drbg_309607","name":"Dual_EC_DRBG","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Controversial pseudorandom number generator. 2013 – Dual_EC_DRBG is discovered to have a NSA backdoor.","verdict":"Advance: Snowden documents revealed in 2013 that Dual_EC_DRBG likely had an NSA backdoor, eroding trust in standards.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dual_EC_DRBG","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309607"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dual_ec_drbg_309607"},{"id":"w_crystal_twinning_109856","name":"Crystal twinning","year":1772,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Two separate crystals sharing some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. 1772 - Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle developed geometrical ideas on crystal structure in his Essai de Cristallographie. He also described the twinning phenomenon in crystals.","verdict":"Advance: Romé de l'Isle's 1772 study of twinned crystals helped found crystallography; twinning now strengthens steels and shape-memory alloys.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystal_twinning","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q109856"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_crystal_twinning_109856"},{"id":"w_goniometer_1126161","name":"Goniometer","year":-2200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Measuring instrument. 2200 BC: Protractor, Phase IV, Lothal, Indus Valley (modern-day India), a Xancus shell cylinder with sawn grooves, at right angles, in its top and bottom surfaces, has been proposed as an angle marking tool.","verdict":"Advance: A shell protractor from Lothal (c. 2200 BCE) is an early angle-measuring instrument (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Goniometer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126161"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_goniometer_1126161"},{"id":"w_isomorphism_902950","name":"Isomorphism","year":1819,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Having crystal structures of the same symmetry. 1819 - Eilhard Mitscherlich discovered crystallographic isomorphism.","verdict":"Advance: Eilhard Mitscherlich's 1819 isomorphism showed that similar compounds share crystal forms, helping Berzelius fix atomic weights.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Isomorphism_(crystallography)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902950"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_isomorphism_902950"},{"id":"w_crystallographic_restriction_theorem_3527223","name":"Crystallographic restriction theorem","year":1826,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Theorem about admissible crystal symmetries. 1826 - Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim derived the 32 crystal classes by using the crystallographic restriction, consistent with Haüy's laws, that only 2, 3, 4 and 6-fold rotational axes are permitted.","verdict":"Advance: Frankenheim and Hessel (1826–30) derived the 32 crystal classes, foundations of crystallography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystallographic_restriction_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3527223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_crystallographic_restriction_theorem_3527223"},{"id":"w_point_group_899720","name":"Point group","year":1830,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Group of geometric symmetries (isometries) that keep at least one point fixed. 1830 - Johann F. C. Hessel published an independent geometrical derivation of the 32 point groups ( crystal classes ).","verdict":"Advance: Hessel's 1830 point groups classify crystal symmetries.","dependencies":["w_group_83478"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Point_group","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899720"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_point_group_899720"},{"id":"w_miller_index_849699","name":"Miller index","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Describing crystal lattice planes. 1839 - William Hallowes Miller invented zonal relations by projecting the faces of a crystal upon the surface of a circumscribed sphere.","verdict":"Advance: William Miller's 1839 three-number notation for crystal planes is still the language of materials science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Miller_index","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849699"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_miller_index_849699"},{"id":"w_bravais_lattice_865788","name":"Bravais lattice","year":1842,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"An infinite array of discrete points in three dimensional space generated by a set of discrete translation operations. 1842 - Moritz Frankenheim derived 15 different theoretical networks of points in space not dependent on molecular shape.","verdict":"Advance: Auguste Bravais showed that there are only 14 distinct 3-D lattices (1848), the geometric basis of crystallography.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bravais_lattice","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q865788"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1848)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bravais_lattice_865788"},{"id":"w_space_group_899033","name":"Space group","year":1891,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Symmetry group of a configuration in space. 1891 - Derivation of the 230 space groups (by adding mirror-image symmetry to Sohncke's work) by a collaborative effort of Evgraf Fedorov and Arthur Schoenflies.","verdict":"Advance: Fedorov and Schoenflies derived the 230 space groups (1891), the complete map of crystal symmetries.","dependencies":["w_point_group_899720"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_group","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899033"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_space_group_899033"},{"id":"w_curie_s_principle_3403596","name":"Curie’s principle","year":1894,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Symmetry principle. 1894 - Pierre Curie described the now called Curie's principle for the symmetry properties of crystals.","verdict":"Advance: Pierre Curie's 1894 symmetry principle states effects inherit their causes' symmetries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie%27s_principle","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3403596"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_curie_s_principle_3403596"},{"id":"w_diffraction_133900","name":"Diffraction","year":1665,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit. 1665 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi highlights the phenomenon of diffraction","verdict":"Advance: Grimaldi's 1665 observation of light bending at edges was early evidence for the wave nature of light.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diffraction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133900"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_diffraction_133900"},{"id":"w_bragg_s_law_847354","name":"Bragg's law","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gives the angles for coherent and incoherent scattering from a crystal lattice. 1912 - Bragg diffraction, expressed through Bragg's law, is first presented by Lawrence Bragg on 11 November 1912 to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.","verdict":"Advance: The Braggs' 1913 law determined crystal structures from X-ray angles, leading to DNA's structure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bragg's_law","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q847354"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bragg_s_law_847354"},{"id":"w_x_ray_diffraction_12101244","name":"X-ray diffraction","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical phenomenon. 1912: Max von Laue: x-ray diffraction","verdict":"Advance: Max von Laue's 1912 X-ray diffraction proved X-rays are waves and crystals have lattices.","dependencies":["w_diffraction_133900"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffraction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12101244"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_x_ray_diffraction_12101244"},{"id":"w_friedel_s_law_899242","name":"Friedel's law","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1913 - Georges Friedel stated Friedel's law, a property of Fourier transforms of real functions. Friedel's law is used in X-ray diffraction, crystallography and scattering from real potential within the Born approximation.","verdict":"Advance: Georges Friedel's 1913 law on diffraction symmetry is a basic constraint every crystallographer must work around.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedel%27s_law","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899242"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_friedel_s_law_899242"},{"id":"w_cellulose_80294","name":"Cellulose","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1920 - Reginald Oliver Herzog and Willi Jancke published the first systematic analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns of cellulose extracted from a variety of sources.","verdict":"Advance: Herzog and Jancke's 1920 X-ray patterns showed cellulose is crystalline, the start of modern polymer structure science.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cellulose","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80294"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_cellulose_80294"},{"id":"w_ewald_s_sphere_440818","name":"Ewald's sphere","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Energy conservation during diffraction by atoms. 1921 - Paul Peter Ewald introduced a spherical construction for explaining the occurrence of diffraction spots, which is now called Ewald's sphere.","verdict":"Advance: Paul Ewald's 1921 sphere construction visualizes diffraction conditions.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ewald's_sphere","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q440818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ewald_s_sphere_440818"},{"id":"w_atomic_radius_483788","name":"Atomic radius","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any measure of the size of atoms. 1926 - Victor Goldschmidt distinguished between atomic and ionic radii and postulated some rules for atom substitution in crystal structures.","verdict":"Advance: Goldschmidt's atomic and ionic radii; crystal chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atomic_radius","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483788"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atomic_radius_483788"},{"id":"w_feldspar_170258","name":"Feldspar","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mineral group. 1928 - Felix Machatschki, working with Goldschmidt, showed that silicon can be replaced by aluminium in feldspar structures.","verdict":"Advance: Machatschki's 1928 aluminium-for-silicon substitution explained feldspar structures, helping decode most of Earth's crust.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Feldspar","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170258"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_feldspar_170258"},{"id":"w_schr_dinger_equation_165498","name":"Schrödinger equation","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Partial differential equation describing how the quantum state of a non-relativistic physical system changes with time. 1925: Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation ( quantum mechanics )","verdict":"Advance: Schrödinger's 1926 wave equation describes quantum systems, the basis of chemistry and semiconductors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165498"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_schr_dinger_equation_165498"},{"id":"w_pauling_s_rules_164238","name":"Pauling's rules","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Rules to predict ionic compounds' crystal structures. 1929 - Linus Pauling formulated a set of rules (later called Pauling's rules ) to describe the structure of complex ionic crystals.","verdict":"Advance: Linus Pauling's 1929 rules predicted ionic crystal structures from atom sizes and charges, a basis of mineral and ceramic design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pauling's_rules","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164238"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_pauling_s_rules_164238"},{"id":"w_paracrystalline_3894995","name":"Paracrystalline","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Materials without long-range ordering of their crystal lattices. 1932 - Friedrich Rinne introduced the concept of paracrystallinity for liquid crystals and amorphous materials.","verdict":"Advance: Friedrich Rinne's concept of partially ordered solids helped describe polymers and liquid crystals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracrystallinity","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3894995"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_paracrystalline_3894995"},{"id":"w_patterson_function_905709","name":"Patterson function","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"X-ray crystallography. 1934 - Arthur Patterson introduced the Patterson function which uses diffraction intensities to determine the interatomic distances within a crystal, setting limits to the possible phase values for the reflected X-rays.","verdict":"Advance: Arthur Patterson's 1934 function solved crystal structures from intensities alone, enabling protein crystallography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterson_function","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905709"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_patterson_function_905709"},{"id":"w_intermetallic_428069","name":"Intermetallic","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Solid-state compound exhibiting metallic bonding, defined stoichiometry and ordered crystal structure. 1934 - Fritz Laves investigated the structures of intermetallic compounds of formula AB 2. These structures were subsequently named Laves phases.","verdict":"Advance: Ordered metal compounds such as nickel aluminides hold strength at high temperature, which is why they are used in turbine blades.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intermetallic","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428069"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_intermetallic_428069"},{"id":"w_electron_microscope_132560","name":"Electron microscope","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"A magnifying system capable of showing the interior or surface of a microscopic object by means of directed electron beams. 1931: The electron microscope is invented by Ernst Ruska.","verdict":"Advance: Ruska and Knoll's 1931 electron microscope exceeded light microscopy's resolution, revealing viruses.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electron_microscope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132560"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_electron_microscope_132560"},{"id":"w_small_angle_x_ray_scattering_3027679","name":"Small-angle X-ray scattering","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique using elastic small-angle scattering of X-rays. 1939 - André Guinier discovered small-angle X-ray scattering.","verdict":"Advance: André Guinier's 1938 small-angle scattering probes nanostructures in alloys, polymers and proteins.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Small-angle_X-ray_scattering","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3027679"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_small_angle_x_ray_scattering_3027679"},{"id":"w_perovskite_structure_3036449","name":"Perovskite structure","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of crystal structure. 1945 - The crystal structure of the perovskite BaTiO 3 was first published by Helen Megaw based on barium titanate X-ray diffraction data.","verdict":"Advance: Helen Megaw's 1945 barium titanate structure made perovskites a template for capacitors, piezoelectrics and solar cells.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Perovskite_(structure)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3036449"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_perovskite_structure_3036449"},{"id":"w_solid_state_nmr_spectroscopy_7557802","name":"Solid-state NMR spectroscopy","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Is a technique for characterizing atomic level structure in solid materials. 1948 - George Pake used solid state NMR spectroscopy to determine hydrogen atom distances in a single crystal of gypsum.","verdict":"Advance: George Pake's 1948 solid-state NMR measured distances between nuclei in crystals, now used to study batteries and drugs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solid-state_nuclear_magnetic_resonance","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7557802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_solid_state_nmr_spectroscopy_7557802"},{"id":"w_neutron_diffraction_910499","name":"Neutron diffraction","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Application of neutron scattering to the determination of the atomic and/or magnetic structure of a material. 1949 - Clifford Shull opened a new field of magnetic crystallography based on neutron diffraction.","verdict":"Advance: Clifford Shull and Ernest Wollan's neutron scattering (1946–49) revealed magnetic order and hydrogen positions invisible to X-rays (Nobel 1994).","dependencies":["w_diffraction_133900"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neutron_diffraction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q910499"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_neutron_diffraction_910499"},{"id":"w_alpha_helix_283399","name":"Alpha helix","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of secondary structure. 1951 - Linus Pauling determined the structure of the α-helix and the β-sheet in polypeptide chains.","verdict":"Advance: Pauling's alpha helix revealed protein structure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alpha_helix","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q283399"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_alpha_helix_283399"},{"id":"w_homologous_series_741844","name":"Homologous series","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of chemical substances with the same general formula, varying by a single parameter. 1953 - Arne Magnéli introduced the term homologous series to describe polytypes of transition metal oxides that exhibit crystallographic shear structures.","verdict":"Advance: Recognizing families of compounds that differ stepwise lets chemists predict properties, from alkanes to inorganic oxide series.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Homologous_series","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741844"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_homologous_series_741844"},{"id":"w_pearson_symbol_338648","name":"Pearson symbol","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Means of describing a crystal structure. 1958 - William Burton Pearson published A Handbook of Lattice Spacings and Structures of Metals and Alloys, where he introduced the Pearson symbols for crystal structure types.","verdict":"Advance: William Pearson's 1958 handbook gave a compact symbol for each crystal type, an index used across metallurgy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pearson_symbol","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q338648"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_pearson_symbol_338648"},{"id":"w_hemoglobin_43041","name":"Hemoglobin","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Oxygen-transport metalloprotein in red blood cells of most vertebrates. 1960 - After many years of research, Max Perutz determined the structure of haemoglobin for which he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.","verdict":"Advance: Max Perutz's 1959 haemoglobin structure (Nobel 1962) revealed how a protein carries oxygen, a founding success of structural biology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hemoglobin","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hemoglobin_43041"},{"id":"w_close_packing_of_equal_spheres_1037840","name":"Close-packing of equal spheres","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Dense arrangement of congruent spheres in an infinite, regular arrangement. 1962 - Alan Mackay demonstrated that there exists close packing of spheres to yield icosahedral structures.","verdict":"Advance: Alan Mackay's 1962 icosahedral packings foreshadowed quasicrystals; dense sphere packing models metals and the Kepler conjecture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1037840"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_close_packing_of_equal_spheres_1037840"},{"id":"w_rietveld_refinement_902629","name":"Rietveld refinement","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique for use in the characterisation of crystalline materials. 1967 - Hugo Rietveld invented the Rietveld refinement method for computation of crystal structures.","verdict":"Advance: Hugo Rietveld's 1967 whole-pattern fitting made powder diffraction quantitative, essential for batteries, cements and drugs.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rietveld_refinement","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902629"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_rietveld_refinement_902629"},{"id":"w_bacteriophage_165028","name":"Bacteriophage","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Virus that infects and replicates within bacteria. 1968 - Aaron Klug and David DeRosier used electron microscopy to visualise the structure of the tail of bacteriophage T4, a common virus, thus signalling a breakthrough in macromolecular structure determination.","verdict":"Advance: Phages: bacterial viruses that were key to molecular biology and phage therapy.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bacteriophage","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165028"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bacteriophage_165028"},{"id":"w_scanning_transmission_electron_microscop_874835","name":"Scanning transmission electron microscopy","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of transmission electron microscope. 1970 - Albert Crewe demonstrated imaging of single atoms in a scanning transmission electron microscopy.","verdict":"Advance: Albert Crewe's 1970 STEM imaged single uranium atoms, the start of atom-by-atom materials analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scanning_transmission_electron_microscopy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q874835"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_scanning_transmission_electron_microscop_874835"},{"id":"w_protein_data_bank_766195","name":"Protein Data Bank","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"International open access database of protein and nucleic acid structures. 1971 - Establishment of the Protein Data Bank (PDB). At PDB, Edgar Meyer develops the first general software tools for handling and visualizing protein structural data.","verdict":"Advance: The Protein Data Bank (1971) archives structures openly and trained AlphaFold.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Protein_Data_Bank","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q766195"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_protein_data_bank_766195"},{"id":"w_synchrotron_radiation_212871","name":"Synchrotron radiation","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially. 1971 - Gerd Rosenbaum, Kenneth Holmes, and Jean Witz first discussed the potential of synchrotron X-ray diffraction for biological applications.","verdict":"Advance: Gerd Rosenbaum and Ken Holmes's 1971 use of synchrotron light for X-ray diffraction founded modern light sources.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Synchrotron_radiation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212871"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_synchrotron_radiation_212871"},{"id":"w_porin_67101192","name":"Porin","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Group of transport proteins having channels which consist largely of α-helical or β-strand-type spanners. 1991 - Georg E. Schulz and colleagues reported the structure of a bacterial porin, a membrane protein with a cylindrical shape (a ‘ β-barrel ').","verdict":"Advance: Porins, the barrel-shaped channels in bacterial outer membranes, explain how antibiotics enter cells and why some bacteria resist them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Porin_(protein)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q67101192"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_porin_67101192"},{"id":"w_crystallographic_information_file_2713137","name":"Crystallographic Information File","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"File format for representing crystallographic information. 1991 - The crystallographic information file (CIF) format was introduced by Sydney R. Hall, Frank H. Allen, and I. David Brown based on the self-defining text archive and retrieval (STAR) file format developed by Sydney R. Hall.","verdict":"Advance: The 1991 CIF standard let crystal structures be shared and checked automatically, the backbone of materials databases.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystallographic_Information_File","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2713137"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_crystallographic_information_file_2713137"},{"id":"w_electron_crystallography_3305783","name":"Electron crystallography","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1995 - Douglas L. Dorset published Structural Electron Crystallography, a major text on electron crystallography.","verdict":"Advance: Electron diffraction now solves structures from crystals too small for X-rays, transforming pharmaceutical and protein work.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_crystallography","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3305783"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electron_crystallography_3305783"},{"id":"w_radiation_damage_152749","name":"Radiation damage","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Effects of ionizing radiation on living and nonliving things. 2003 - Raimond Ravelli et al. demonstrated X-ray radiation damage -induced phasing method for structure determination.","verdict":"Advance: Ravelli and colleagues' 2003 X-ray damage studies improved protein crystallography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radiation_damage","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q152749"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_radiation_damage_152749"},{"id":"w_free_electron_laser_586386","name":"Free-electron laser","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of laser. 2005 - The first X-ray free-electron laser in the soft X-ray regime, FLASH, became an operational user facility at DESY for X-ray diffraction experiments.","verdict":"Advance: DESY's FLASH (2005) was the first soft X-ray free-electron laser, leading to LCLS in 2009.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Free-electron_laser","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q586386"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_free_electron_laser_586386"},{"id":"w_transmission_electron_microscopy_110779037","name":"Transmission electron microscopy","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Analytic technique. 1938: James Hillier builds another TEM.","verdict":"Advance: James Hillier and Albert Prebus built North America's first TEM in 1938, enabling commercial production.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transmission_electron_microscopy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110779037"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_transmission_electron_microscopy_110779037"},{"id":"w_g_protein_coupled_recepteishon_38173","name":"G protein-coupled receptor structure","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and cellular responses. 2007 - Two X-ray crystal structures of a GPCR, the human β2 adrenergic receptor, were published.","verdict":"Advance: Kobilka and Stevens' 2007 β2-adrenergic receptor structure exposed the target class of about a third of drugs (Nobel 2012).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/G_protein-coupled_receptor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38173"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_g_protein_coupled_recepteishon_38173"},{"id":"w_quasicrystal_263214","name":"Quasicrystal","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical structure. 2011 - Dan Shechtman received the Nobel Prize in chemistry \"for the discovery of quasicrystals.\"","verdict":"Advance: Dan Shechtman's 1982 forbidden fivefold symmetry overturned crystallography's rules and won the 2011 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quasicrystal","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q263214"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_quasicrystal_263214"},{"id":"w_cryogenic_electron_microscopy_5190506","name":"Cryogenic electron microscopy","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) where the sample is studied at cryogenic temperatures. 2020 - Two independent groups led respectively by Holger Stark and Sjors Scheres demonstrated that single-particle cryoelectron microscopy has reached atomic resolution.","verdict":"Advance: Cryo-EM reached atomic resolution in 2020, allowing proteins to be imaged frozen in action without crystals; it mapped the coronavirus spike within weeks.","dependencies":["w_transmission_electron_microscopy_110779037"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryo-electron_microscopy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5190506"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cryogenic_electron_microscopy_5190506"},{"id":"w_trolleybus_5639","name":"Trolleybus","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electric bus that draws power from dual overhead wires. The trolleybus dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. Ernst Werner Siemens demonstrated his \" Elektromote \" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882.","verdict":"Advance: Werner von Siemens' 1882 Elektromote ran on overhead wires, the first trolleybus, still used in many cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trolleybus","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5639"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_trolleybus_5639"},{"id":"w_rechargeable_battery_187510","name":"Rechargeable battery","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times; device that stores energy. Anthony Reckenzaun designs the first significant electric launch driven by storage batteries, and names the boat Electricity.","verdict":"Advance: Faure's 1881 pasted-plate lead–acid design made batteries rechargeable at scale, the lineage leading to lithium-ion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rechargeable_battery","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187510"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_rechargeable_battery_187510"},{"id":"w_general_motors_ev1_152013","name":"General Motors EV1","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric compact car model. December: Launch of the limited production General Motors EV1","verdict":"Advance: GM's EV1 (1996) was the first modern mass-produced electric car; its controversial recall fed later EV advocacy.","dependencies":["early_ev"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_Motors_EV1","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q152013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_general_motors_ev1_152013"},{"id":"w_toyota_rav4_ev_2655621","name":"Toyota RAV4 EV","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Motor vehicle. Toyota RAV4 EV becomes first plug-in electric production SUV. Leases are mostly restricted to governments and businesses in California.","verdict":"Advance: Toyota's RAV4 EV (1997) proved the reliability of nickel-metal-hydride electric SUVs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Toyota_RAV4_EV","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2655621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_toyota_rav4_ev_2655621"},{"id":"w_toyota_prius_213115","name":"Toyota Prius","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hybrid electric automobile. Toyota Prius becomes the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: Toyota's Prius (1997) mainstreamed hybrid drive, which by the 2020s had sold more than 15 million.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Toyota_Prius","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213115"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_toyota_prius_213115"},{"id":"w_nissan_r_nessa_1260338","name":"Nissan R'nessa","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Car model. 1997 – Nissan R'nessa, first short-run production lithium-ion battery electric car.","verdict":"Advance: Nissan's R'nessa EV (1997) was the first car with lithium-ion batteries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nissan_R'nessa","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1260338"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nissan_r_nessa_1260338"},{"id":"w_airworthiness_certificate_2946885","name":"Airworthiness certificate","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A document issued by government authorities to certify that the aircraft registered in that state complies with the design aspects of the appropriate airworthiness requirements. first certificate of airworthiness for an electric powered aircraft was granted to the Lange Antares 20E.","verdict":"Advance: Certification rules that made flying the safest way to travel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Airworthiness_certificate","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2946885"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_airworthiness_certificate_2946885"},{"id":"w_mitsubishi_i_miev_1129816","name":"Mitsubishi i-MiEV","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric car manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors. July: Launch of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, the first modern highway legal series production electric car","verdict":"Advance: Mitsubishi's i-MiEV (2009) was the first modern mass-produced highway-capable EV.","dependencies":["early_ev"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mitsubishi_i-MiEV","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1129816"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mitsubishi_i_miev_1129816"},{"id":"w_nissan_leaf_911323","name":"Nissan Leaf","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Compact electric car manufactured by Nissan. December: Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt deliveries began","verdict":"Advance: Nissan's Leaf (2010) was the first mass-market EV, with over 650,000 sold.","dependencies":["w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882","early_ev"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nissan_Leaf","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nissan_leaf_911323"},{"id":"w_pipistrel_taurus_541588","name":"Pipistrel Taurus","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Two-seat, self launching ultralight sailplane. Taurus Electro G2 becomes the first two-seat electric aircraft to have achieved series production.","verdict":"Advance: Pipistrel's Taurus Electro (2011) was the first two-seat electric aircraft in production.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pipistrel_Taurus","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q541588"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pipistrel_taurus_541588"},{"id":"w_plug_in_electric_vehicle_7205234","name":"Plug-in electric vehicle","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electric vehicle. September: Cumulative global plug-in sales passed 1 million units.","verdict":"Advance: Plug-in electric vehicles passed 1 million cumulative sales in 2015, and more than 40 million by 2024.","dependencies":["early_ev"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plug-in_electric_vehicle","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205234"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_plug_in_electric_vehicle_7205234"},{"id":"w_solar_impulse_141124962","name":"Solar Impulse","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Swiss long-range experimental solar-powered aircraft project. June 20-23: Solar Impulse 2 makes the first non-stop solar-powered transatlantic flight","verdict":"Advance: Solar Impulse 2 flew around the world on sunlight alone (2015–16), demonstrating solar flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solar_Impulse","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141124962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_solar_impulse_141124962"},{"id":"w_pipistrel_velis_electro_96399449","name":"Pipistrel Velis Electro","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"World's first type certified electric aircraft. June: the Velis Electro variant of the two-seat Pipistrel Virus was the first electric aircraft to secure type certification, from the EASA","verdict":"Advance: Pipistrel's Velis Electro (2020) was the first type-certified electric aircraft, used for pilot training.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pipistrel_Velis_Electro","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96399449"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pipistrel_velis_electro_96399449"},{"id":"w_rivian_r1t_59291760","name":"Rivian R1T","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Full electric pick-up developed by Rivian. September: Rivian R1T becomes the first plug-in electric production pickup truck. [ citation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Rivian's R1T (2021) was the first electric pickup to reach production.","dependencies":["early_ev"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rivian_R1T","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electric_vehicles","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59291760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rivian_r1t_59291760"},{"id":"w_leyden_jar_23645","name":"Leyden jar","year":1745,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Antique electrical device which stores a high-voltage electric charge. 1745: Musschenbroek and Kleist independently develop the Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor.","verdict":"Advance: Musschenbroek and Kleist's 1745 Leyden jar stored electric charge, the first capacitor, enabling Franklin's lightning experiments.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Leyden_jar","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23645"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_leyden_jar_23645"},{"id":"w_galvanic_corrosion_2367906","name":"Galvanic corrosion","year":1780,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Corrosion in electrolytes. Italian scientist Luigi Galvani discovered Galvanic action in living tissue.","verdict":"Advance: Volta took Galvani's twitching frog legs as his cue and built the battery; galvanic corrosion's dissimilar-metal effect is the same physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Galvanic_corrosion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2367906"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_galvanic_corrosion_2367906"},{"id":"w_coulomb_s_law_83152","name":"Coulomb's law","year":1785,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"A physical law that states the electric force between two point charges is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.. French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb formulated and published Coulomb's law in his paper Premier Mémoire sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme.","verdict":"Advance: Coulomb's 1785 torsion-balance law quantified electric force, the foundation of electrostatics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coulomb's_law","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83152"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_coulomb_s_law_83152"},{"id":"w_laplace_transform_199691","name":"Laplace transform","year":1785,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The integral transform ∫₀^∞ d𝑠 𝑓(𝑡)⁢exp(−𝑠𝑡). French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace developed the Laplace transform to transform a linear differential equation into an algebraic equation. Later, his transform became a tool in circuit analysis.","verdict":"Advance: Laplace's transform (1780s) solves differential equations in circuits, control systems and signal processing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laplace_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199691"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_laplace_transform_199691"},{"id":"w_right_hand_rule_1366301","name":"Right-hand rule","year":1820,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Common mnemonic for understanding orientation of axes in three-dimensional space. One week after Ørsted's discovery, French physicist André-Marie Ampère published his law. He also proposed the right-hand screw rule.","verdict":"Advance: Ampère's right-hand rule (1820) gives the direction of magnetic fields around currents.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Right-hand_rule","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1366301"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_right_hand_rule_1366301"},{"id":"w_thermoelectric_effect_552456","name":"Thermoelectric effect","year":1821,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa. German scientist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity.","verdict":"Advance: Seebeck's 1821 thermoelectric discovery turned heat directly into voltage, powering Voyager's radioisotope generators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermoelectric_effect","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q552456"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_thermoelectric_effect_552456"},{"id":"w_electrical_resistance_and_conductance_106603432","name":"Electrical resistance and conductance","year":1827,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Opposition to the passage of an electric current. German physicist Georg Ohm introduced the concept of electrical resistance.","verdict":"Advance: Georg Ohm defined electrical resistance in 1827, making circuits calculable.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q106603432"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_electrical_resistance_and_conductance_106603432"},{"id":"w_faraday_s_law_of_induction_181465","name":"Faraday's law of induction","year":1831,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Basic law of electromagnetism of magnetic fields inducing a potential difference. English physicist Michael Faraday published the law of induction (Joseph Henry developed the same law independently).","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1831 law of induction underlies generators, transformers and wireless charging.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Faraday's_law_of_induction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181465"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_faraday_s_law_of_induction_181465"},{"id":"w_dc_motor_3842034","name":"DC motor","year":1831,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of motor which works on direct current and magnetic poles. American scientist Joseph Henry in the United States developed a prototype DC motor.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Henry's 1831 rocking motor and Thomas Davenport's 1837 patent turned electromagnetism into rotary power.","dependencies":["w_electric_motor_72313"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DC_motor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3842034"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_dc_motor_3842034"},{"id":"w_electrical_generator_131502","name":"Electrical generator","year":1832,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. French instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii in France developed a prototype DC generator.","verdict":"Advance: Hippolyte Pixii's 1832 dynamo and Gramme's 1871 version turned motion into electricity, enabling power plants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_generator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131502"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electrical_generator_131502"},{"id":"w_electrolysis_64403","name":"Electrolysis","year":1800,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Technique that uses a direct electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. 1785: Martinus van Marum is the first to use the electrolysis technique","verdict":"Advance: Splitting water with a current (Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800) led to the discovery of sodium and potassium and to industrial chlorine and aluminium.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrolysis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q64403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electrolysis_64403"},{"id":"w_thermistor_175973","name":"Thermistor","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. Michael Faraday invented the thermistor","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1833 observation that silver sulphide conducts better when hot founded semiconductors, and thermistors now sense temperature everywhere.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermistor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175973"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_thermistor_175973"},{"id":"w_wheatstone_bridge_245133","name":"Wheatstone bridge","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Measuring instrument in electricity. English physicist Samuel Hunter Christie invented the Wheatstone bridge (It is named after Charles Wheatstone who popularized it).","verdict":"Advance: Christie's 1833 bridge, popularized by Wheatstone, measures resistance precisely.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wheatstone_bridge","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245133"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_wheatstone_bridge_245133"},{"id":"w_relay_174053","name":"Relay","year":1835,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electrically operated switch. 1835 – Joseph Henry invents the electric relay, which is an electrical switch by which the change of a weak current through the windings of an electromagnet will attract an armature to open or close the switch.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Henry's 1835 relay let a weak current switch a stronger one, extending telegraphs and later forming the first computers' logic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Relay","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174053"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_relay_174053"},{"id":"w_photovoltaic_effect_2075856","name":"Photovoltaic effect","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electric current generation from light. French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect.","verdict":"Advance: Edmond Becquerel's 1839 discovery that light makes current in electrolytes was the seed of solar cells.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photovoltaic_effect","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2075856"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_photovoltaic_effect_2075856"},{"id":"w_transatlantic_telegraph_cable_2395922","name":"Transatlantic telegraph cable","year":1866,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Undersea cable. The Transatlantic telegraph cable","verdict":"Advance: The 1866 Great Eastern cable cut transatlantic messaging from weeks to minutes, beginning global real-time news and markets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2395922"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transatlantic_telegraph_cable_2395922"},{"id":"w_arc_lamp_841282","name":"Arc lamp","year":1802,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Light created by electrical breakdown of gas. 1802: Humphry Davy invents the arc lamp (exact date unclear; not practical as a light source until the invention of efficient electric generators).","verdict":"Advance: First practical electric light.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arc_lamp","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841282"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_arc_lamp_841282"},{"id":"w_loudspeaker_570","name":"Loudspeaker","year":1877,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electroacoustic transducer that converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. German industrialist Werner von Siemens developed a primitive loudspeaker.","verdict":"Advance: Moving-coil loudspeakers, patented by Siemens in 1877 and made practical by Rice and Kellogg in 1925, filled rooms with amplified sound.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Loudspeaker","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q570"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_loudspeaker_570"},{"id":"w_hall_effect_10656","name":"Hall effect","year":1879,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Production of a voltage difference across an electrical conductor in a magnetic field. American physicist Edwin Herbert Hall discovered the Hall Effect.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin Hall's 1879 voltage across current in a magnetic field now underpins billions of position and current sensors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hall_effect","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hall_effect_10656"},{"id":"w_phonograph_record_16629185","name":"Phonograph record","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. German American inventor Emile Berliner invented the gramophone record.","verdict":"Advance: Emile Berliner's 1887 flat disc gramophone could be stamped by the thousand, creating the recorded music industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phonograph_record","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16629185"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_phonograph_record_16629185"},{"id":"w_fuse_182221","name":"Fuse","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrical safety device. Thomas Edison invents the fuse","verdict":"Advance: Fuses, patented by Edison in 1890, melt to cut overloaded circuits, a cheap safeguard against electrical fires.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuse_(electrical)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182221"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fuse_182221"},{"id":"w_extremely_high_frequency_570342","name":"Extremely high frequency","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The 30–300 GHz range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose conducts experiments in extremely high frequency millimetre waves using a semiconductor junction to detect radio waves","verdict":"Advance: Jagadish Chandra Bose's 1895 millimetre-wave experiments in Calcutta anticipated 5G and radar bands by a century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extremely_high_frequency","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q570342"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_extremely_high_frequency_570342"},{"id":"w_radio_receiver_159391","name":"Radio receiver","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Radio device for receiving radio waves and converting them to a useful signal. Russian physicist Alexander Popov finds a use for radio waves, building a radio receiver that can detect lightning strikes","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Popov's 1895 lightning-detecting receiver in St Petersburg was among the first radio receivers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radio_receiver","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_radio_receiver_159391"},{"id":"w_electrolytic_capacitor_1326992","name":"Electrolytic capacitor","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polarized capacitor whose anode is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through anodization. Electrolytic capacitor patent was granted to Charles Pollak.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Pollak's 1896 aluminium-oxide capacitor packed high capacitance into small cans, essential to every power supply.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrolytic_capacitor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1326992"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electrolytic_capacitor_1326992"},{"id":"w_oscilloscope_174320","name":"Oscilloscope","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Used for measuring waves. Ferdinand Braun invents the \"inertialess cathode ray oscillograph tube\", a principle that remained unchanged in television picture tubes.","verdict":"Advance: Braun's 1897 cathode-ray tube, steered by deflection plates, became the oscilloscope, the bench instrument of electronics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oscilloscope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174320"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_oscilloscope_174320"},{"id":"w_fluorescent_lamp_182925","name":"Fluorescent lamp","year":1867,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Light source. 1867 – Edmond Becquerel demonstrates the first fluorescent lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Edmond Becquerel's 1867 fluorescent tube, made practical by GE in 1938, gave more light per watt than incandescents.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fluorescent_lamp","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182925"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fluorescent_lamp_182925"},{"id":"w_diode_11656","name":"Diode","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Abstract electronic component with two terminals that allows current to flow in one direction. 1874 – German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovers the \"unilateral conduction\" of crystals. Braun patents the first solid state diode, a crystal rectifier, in 1899.","verdict":"Advance: Ferdinand Braun's 1874 rectifying crystal led to radio detectors and the semiconductor diodes in every electronic device.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diode","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1901)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_diode_11656"},{"id":"w_triode_176129","name":"Triode","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Single-grid amplifying vacuum tube having three active electrodes. American inventor Lee de Forest invented the triode.","verdict":"Advance: Lee de Forest's 1906 triode amplified signals, enabling radio broadcasting, long-distance telephony and early computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Triode","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176129"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_triode_176129"},{"id":"w_silver_mica_capacitor_1531441","name":"Silver mica capacitor","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mica capacitor was invented by William Dubilier.","verdict":"Advance: William Dubilier's mica capacitors gave stable, precise capacitance for radio circuits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Silver_mica_capacitor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1531441"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_silver_mica_capacitor_1531441"},{"id":"w_crystal_oscillator_877055","name":"Crystal oscillator","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic oscillator circuit. American engineer Alexander M. Nicholson invented the crystal oscillator.","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Nicholson's 1917 quartz oscillator gave stable radio frequencies, now in every phone and computer.","dependencies":["w_electronic_oscillator_249997"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystal_oscillator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q877055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_crystal_oscillator_877055"},{"id":"w_superheterodyne_receiver_332683","name":"Superheterodyne receiver","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Common type of radio receiver that shifts the received signal to an easily-processed intermediate frequency. Edwin Howard Armstrong developed the standard AM radio receiver.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin Armstrong's 1918 superheterodyne converted signals to a fixed frequency for stable, selective reception, now in nearly every radio.","dependencies":["w_radio_receiver_159391"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Superheterodyne_receiver","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332683"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_superheterodyne_receiver_332683"},{"id":"w_metre_convention_217429","name":"Metre Convention","year":1875,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1875 international treaty. Metre Convention was extended to include the electrical units.","verdict":"Advance: The 1875 treaty that made the metric system a shared global standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metre_Convention","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217429"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_metre_convention_217429"},{"id":"w_graphing_calculator_1541580","name":"Graphing calculator","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Handheld calculator capable of plotting graphs. Edith Clarke invents the \"Clarke calculator\", a graphical calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic function, allowing electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacity in power transmission lines","verdict":"Advance: Edith Clarke's 1921 graphical calculator solved transmission-line equations, foreshadowing graphing calculators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graphing_calculator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1541580"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_graphing_calculator_1541580"},{"id":"w_field_effect_transistor_176097","name":"Field-effect transistor","year":1925,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Transistor that uses an electric field to control its electrical behaviour. Austrian American engineer Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented the first FET (which became popular much later).","verdict":"Advance: Julius Lilienfeld's 1925 patent on the field-effect transistor foresaw the MOSFET, now made in trillions.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Field-effect_transistor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176097"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_field_effect_transistor_176097"},{"id":"w_yagi_uda_antenna_745829","name":"Yagi-Uda antenna","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of radio antenna. Yagi–Uda antenna was developed by the Japanese engineers Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda.","verdict":"Advance: Yagi and Uda's 1926 directional antenna became the rooftop TV aerial and wartime radar antenna worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yagi%E2%80%93Uda_antenna","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_yagi_uda_antenna_745829"},{"id":"w_cathode_ray_tube_83913","name":"Cathode ray tube","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Vacuum tube that can show moving pictures, vector graphics, or lines. Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage use the Braun tube for playback of 20-line black-and-white images.","verdict":"Advance: Ferdinand Braun's 1897 cathode-ray tube drew images with electron beams, the display of TV, radar and early computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83913"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cathode_ray_tube_83913"},{"id":"w_negative_feedback_amplifier_1117035","name":"Negative feedback amplifier","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electronic amplifier. American engineer Harold Stephen Black invented negative feedback amplifier.","verdict":"Advance: Harold Black's 1927 negative feedback stabilized amplifiers, enabling transcontinental telephony and control theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Negative-feedback_amplifier","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117035"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_negative_feedback_amplifier_1117035"},{"id":"w_video_camera_tube_18670447","name":"Video camera tube","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device that captures television images. German Physicist Max Dieckmann invented video camera tube.","verdict":"Advance: Camera tubes from Dieckmann (1906) and Farnsworth (1927) captured images electronically, displacing mechanical TV.","dependencies":["w_cathode_ray_tube_83913"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Video_camera_tube","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18670447"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_video_camera_tube_18670447"},{"id":"w_television_network_1254874","name":"Television network","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Telecommunications network for distribution of television program content. First experimental Television broadcast in the U.S.","verdict":"Advance: Regular TV broadcasts from Schenectady and London (1928–36) began linking stations into networks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Television_broadcaster","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254874"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_television_network_1254874"},{"id":"w_printed_circuit_board_173350","name":"Printed circuit board","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Board to support and connect electronic components. The Englishman Arthur Berry submits a patent on the manufacture of printed circuits by etched metal.","verdict":"Advance: Paul Eisler's printed circuit boards (1936), used in WWII proximity fuzes, made mass-produced electronics possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Printed_circuit_board","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173350"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_printed_circuit_board_173350"},{"id":"w_iconoscope_1570706","name":"Iconoscope","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First practical video camera tube to be used in early television cameras. Russian-American engineer Vladimir K. Zworykin developed the iconoscope.","verdict":"Advance: Vladimir Zworykin's 1933 iconoscope was the first practical electronic TV camera, broadcasting the 1936 Berlin Olympics.","dependencies":["w_cathode_ray_tube_83913"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Iconoscope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1570706"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_iconoscope_1570706"},{"id":"w_klystron_863109","name":"Klystron","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vacuum tube used for amplifying radio waves. Russell and Sigurd Varian developed the first Klystron tube in the US.","verdict":"Advance: The Varian brothers' 1937 klystron amplified microwaves, enabling radar, particle accelerators and satellite uplinks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Klystron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863109"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_klystron_863109"},{"id":"w_color_television_849194","name":"Color television","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Television transmission technology. Otto von Bronk patented his \"Method and apparatus for remote visualization of images and objects with a temporary resolution of the images in parallel rows of dots\".","verdict":"Advance: Baird's 1928 colour demonstration, with von Bronk's 1902 patent, foreshadowed the colour broadcasting of the 1950s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Color_television","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849194"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_color_television_849194"},{"id":"w_transatlantic_communications_cable_361047","name":"Transatlantic communications cable","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Communications cable across the Atlantic. Transatlantic telephone cable","verdict":"Advance: TAT-1 (1956) carried 36 simultaneous phone calls across the Atlantic, up from radio's unreliable links.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transatlantic_communications_cable","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q361047"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transatlantic_communications_cable_361047"},{"id":"w_tantalum_capacitor_357010","name":"Tantalum capacitor","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electrolytic capacitor. Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitor was invented by Bell Laboratories.","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs' 1954 solid tantalum capacitor packed high capacitance into tiny volumes for electronics.","dependencies":["w_electrolytic_capacitor_1326992"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tantalum_capacitor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q357010"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_tantalum_capacitor_357010"},{"id":"w_maser_487875","name":"Maser","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission. 1948 – Invention of the maser and laser by Charles Townes","verdict":"Advance: Charles Townes's 1953 ammonia maser amplified microwaves, leading to the laser and atomic clocks.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maser","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q487875"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_maser_487875"},{"id":"w_nuclear_power_plant_134447","name":"Nuclear power plant","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thermal power station where the heat source is a nuclear reactor. First nuclear power plant in the US","verdict":"Advance: Turning fission heat into steam and grid power; reliable, carbon-free baseload.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877","w_nuclear_fission_11429"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_power_plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134447"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nuclear_power_plant_134447"},{"id":"w_avalanche_photodiode_175932","name":"Avalanche photodiode","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device. Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa invented the avalanche photodiode","verdict":"Advance: Sensitive photodetectors for fiber optics.","dependencies":["w_photodetector_210765"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Avalanche_photodiode","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175932"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_avalanche_photodiode_175932"},{"id":"w_tradic_1428282","name":"TRADIC","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First transistorized computer in the USA. The second generation \" TRADIC \" ( Transistorized Digital Computer ), first to use only transistors therefore much smaller and more powerful than its predecessor tube computers.","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs' TRADIC (1954) was the first US transistorized computer, for the Air Force.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/TRADIC","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1428282"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_tradic_1428282"},{"id":"w_videocassette_recorder_380616","name":"Videocassette recorder","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electromechanical device. First home Videocassette recorder (VCR)","verdict":"Advance: Sony and Philips home video recorders (1963–72) let viewers time-shift TV, which the 1984 Betamax decision upheld.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Videocassette_recorder","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380616"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_videocassette_recorder_380616"},{"id":"w_old_quantum_theory_2566926","name":"Old quantum theory","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of heuristic corrections to classical physics that served as a predecessor to modern quantum mechanics (1900–1925). Old quantum theory Planck","verdict":"Advance: Planck, Einstein and Bohr's old quantum theory (1900–25) bridged classical and quantum physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Old_quantum_theory","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2566926"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_old_quantum_theory_2566926"},{"id":"w_nuclear_transmutation_202651","name":"Nuclear transmutation","year":1918,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another chemical element. Atomic transmutation Rutherford","verdict":"Advance: Rutherford's 1919 transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen was the first artificial nuclear reaction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_transmutation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202651"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nuclear_transmutation_202651"},{"id":"w_scanning_electron_microscope_321095","name":"Scanning electron microscope","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of electron microscope. Scanning electron microscope Knoll","verdict":"Advance: Max Knoll's 1935 scanning electron image led to SEMs, which produce 3D-looking surface images.","dependencies":["w_electron_microscope_132560"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scanning_electron_microscope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q321095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_scanning_electron_microscope_321095"},{"id":"w_xerography_1753339","name":"Xerography","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Photocopying technique that uses dry electrostatics to reproduce images. Xerography Carlson","verdict":"Advance: Carlson's electrostatic toner process, patented in 1942, underlies photocopiers and laser printers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Xerography","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1753339"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_xerography_1753339"},{"id":"w_modem_5607","name":"Modem","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information. Modem MIT and Bell Labs","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs' 1958 data modems sent digital bits over phone lines, enabling SAGE and, later, the dial-up internet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Modem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5607"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_modem_5607"},{"id":"w_karnaugh_map_461528","name":"Karnaugh map","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method to simplify boolean algebra expressions; refinement of Edward Veitch's 1952 Veitch diagram. Karnaugh mapping technique (digital logic) Karnaugh","verdict":"Advance: Maurice Karnaugh's 1953 maps simplify Boolean logic for digital circuit design.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Karnaugh_map","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461528"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_karnaugh_map_461528"},{"id":"w_voltmeter_179741","name":"Voltmeter","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference. Digital voltmeter Kay","verdict":"Advance: Voltmeters made electrical measurement routine, and digital versions (1954) brought precision into every lab.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Voltmeter","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179741"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_voltmeter_179741"},{"id":"w_nuclear_weapons_delivery_3555170","name":"Nuclear weapons delivery","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Technology and systems used to place nuclear weaponry at the point of detonation. Nuclear Missile Kurchatov / Soviet Union","verdict":"Compete: Bombers, missiles and submarines formed the nuclear triad, a redundancy designed so a first strike could not disarm a nation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_weapons_delivery","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3555170"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_weapons_delivery_3555170"},{"id":"w_stripboard_2718735","name":"Stripboard","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Generic name for a widely used type of electronics prototyping board. Veroboard ( Stripboard ) Terry Fitzpatrick","verdict":"Advance: Terry Fitzpatrick's 1959 Veroboard let hobbyists and engineers build circuits quickly, the prototyping board of a generation.","dependencies":["w_printed_circuit_board_173350"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stripboard","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2718735"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_stripboard_2718735"},{"id":"w_compact_cassette_149757","name":"Compact cassette","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. First commercially successful audio compact cassette Philips Corporation","verdict":"Advance: Philips' 1963 Compact Cassette made recording portable and personal, from mixtapes to the Walkman.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q149757"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_compact_cassette_149757"},{"id":"w_fax_132744","name":"Fax","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of transmitting images, often of documents. First digital fax machine Dacom","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Bain's 1843 chemical telegraph patent first sent images by wire, the root of fax and image scanning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fax","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132744"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fax_132744"},{"id":"w_microcomputer_32738","name":"Microcomputer","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Small, relatively inexpensive computer. First microcomputer -on-a-chip Intel","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 4004 (1971) put a CPU on a single chip, enabling microcomputers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microcomputer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q32738"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_microcomputer_32738"},{"id":"w_intel_8008_319509","name":"Intel 8008","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Byte-oriented microprocessor. 8008 processor (200 kHz, 16 kB) Intel","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 8008 (1972) was the first 8-bit microprocessor, leading to the 8080 and x86.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intel_8008","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_8008_319509"},{"id":"w_word_processor_54277","name":"Word processor","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device or computer program for input, editing, formatting, and output of text. First programmable word processor Automatic Electronic Systems","verdict":"Advance: Word processors, from IBM's 1964 MT/ST to software, transformed writing and publishing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Word_processor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54277"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_word_processor_54277"},{"id":"w_automated_teller_machine_81235","name":"Automated teller machine","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic telecommunications device used to perform financial transactions. First modern ATM (IBM 2984) IBM","verdict":"Advance: ATMs gave 24-hour access to cash.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ATM","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81235"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_automated_teller_machine_81235"},{"id":"w_programmable_calculator_493179","name":"Programmable calculator","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Calculator that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations via a stored program. Programmable pocket calculator Hewlett-Packard","verdict":"Advance: Programmable pocket calculators like the HP-65 (1974) put stored programs in engineers' pockets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Programmable_calculator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q493179"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_programmable_calculator_493179"},{"id":"w_digital_camera_62927","name":"Digital camera","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Camera that captures photographs or video in digital format. Digital camera Steven Sasson of Eastman Kodak","verdict":"Advance: Steven Sasson's 1975 Kodak prototype recorded 0.01-megapixel images to tape, the start of digital photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Digital_camera","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q62927"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_digital_camera_62927"},{"id":"w_photonic_integrated_circuit_523846","name":"Photonic integrated circuit","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device that integrates multiple (at least two) photonic functions. Integrated optical circuits Reinhart and Logan","verdict":"Advance: Photonic integrated circuits (1969) combine optical functions on chips for data-center links.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photonic_integrated_circuit","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q523846"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photonic_integrated_circuit_523846"},{"id":"w_optical_character_recognition_167555","name":"Optical character recognition","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer recognition of visual text. Omni-font optical character recognition system Nuance Communications","verdict":"Advance: Ray Kurzweil's 1976 omni-font OCR read printed text for the blind.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_character_recognition","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_optical_character_recognition_167555"},{"id":"w_image_scanner_82744","name":"Image scanner","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. CCD flatbed scanner Kurzweil Computer Products","verdict":"Advance: Russell Kirsch's 1957 drum scanner digitized a photo of his son, the first digital image.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Image_scanner","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82744"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_image_scanner_82744"},{"id":"w_handheld_game_console_941818","name":"Handheld game console","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Lightweight, portable electronic device used for gaming. First handheld electronic game ( Auto Race ) Mattel","verdict":"Advance: Mattel's 1976 LED Auto Race was the first handheld electronic game, the beginning of portable gaming.","dependencies":["w_video_game_console_8076"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Handheld_game_console","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q941818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_handheld_game_console_941818"},{"id":"w_satellite_television_209588","name":"Satellite television","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Television content transmitted via signals from orbiting satellites. 1982: Direct to home satellite television transmission, with the launch of Sky One service.","verdict":"Advance: Direct-to-home satellite TV (1980s) let rural and remote viewers receive dozens of channels without cables.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Satellite_television","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209588"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_satellite_television_209588"},{"id":"w_synthesizer_163829","name":"Synthesizer","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic musical instrument capable of producing a wide range of sounds. First music synthesizer ( Kurzweil K250 ) capable of recreating the grand piano and other orchestral instruments Kurzweil Music Systems","verdict":"Advance: Robert Moog's voltage-controlled modular synthesizer (1964) let musicians build sound from oscillators, and electronic timbre spread from the lab to every genre.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Synthesizer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_synthesizer_163829"},{"id":"w_intel_80386_237794","name":"Intel 80386","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of 32-bit microprocessors introduced in 1985, including DX, SX and SL models. 80386 microprocessor (25 MHz) Intel","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 80386 (1985) brought 32-bit protected mode to PCs, enabling modern operating systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/I386","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q237794"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_80386_237794"},{"id":"w_gps_navigation_device_1486497","name":"GPS navigation device","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that determines its position by analyzing GPS satellite signals. First commercial handheld GPS receiver (Magellan NAV 1000) Magellan Navigation Inc.","verdict":"Advance: Magellan's 1989 handheld GPS receiver opened satellite navigation to sailors and hikers.","dependencies":["gps"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Satellite_navigation_device","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1486497"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_gps_navigation_device_1486497"},{"id":"w_silicon_germanium_367849","name":"Silicon-germanium","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical compound. Silicon–germanium transistors IBM fellow Bernie Meyerson","verdict":"Advance: Bernard Meyerson's silicon–germanium transistors (1989) boosted chip speed cheaply for radio-frequency chips in phones.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Silicon%E2%80%93germanium","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367849"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_silicon_germanium_367849"},{"id":"w_intel_80486_213423","name":"Intel 80486","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of 32-bit microprocessors introduced in 1989, including DX, SX and SL models. 486 microprocessor (33 MHz) Intel","verdict":"Advance: Intel's 486 (1989) integrated the floating-point unit and cache on one chip.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/I486","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213423"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_80486_213423"},{"id":"w_bluetooth_39531","name":"Bluetooth","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Short-distance wireless communication protocol. Bluetooth Ericsson","verdict":"Advance: Ericsson's 1994 short-range radio protocol, named after a Danish king, links billions of headphones, cars and sensors.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bluetooth","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39531"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bluetooth_39531"},{"id":"w_dvd_player_3783103","name":"DVD player","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that plays DVD discs. First DVD player ever made Tatung Company","verdict":"Advance: Toshiba's 1996 players launched DVD, swiftly displacing VHS for home video.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DVD_player","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3783103"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dvd_player_3783103"},{"id":"w_alpha_21164_chip_3277607","name":"Alpha 21164 chip","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microprocessor known by its code name, EV5. Alpha 21164 processor (550 MHz) Digital Equipment","verdict":"Advance: DEC Alpha chip; fastest microprocessor of its day.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_21164","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3277607"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_alpha_21164_chip_3277607"},{"id":"w_power2_2258439","name":"POWER2","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1993 microprocessors by IBM. P2SC processor (15 million transistors) IBM","verdict":"Advance: IBM's POWER2 (1993) powered Deep Blue and supercomputers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POWER2","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2258439"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_power2_2258439"},{"id":"w_brightness_221656","name":"Image scanning for fax (Bain)","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Perception of light level. 1843: Watchmaker Alexander Bain develops the basic concept of displaying images as points with different brightness values.","verdict":"Advance: Bain's synchronized pendulums scanned an image line by line, the raster principle behind every later fax, TV and screen.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brightness","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_brightness_221656"},{"id":"w_telephotography_117833347","name":"Telephotography","year":1848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Transmission of photographic images over telecommunications lines. 1848: Frederick Collier Bakewell invents the first wirephoto machine, an early fax machine","verdict":"Advance: Frederick Bakewell's 1848 copying telegraph transmitted handwriting and images by scanning, an improvement on Bain's fax.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wirephoto","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117833347"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_telephotography_117833347"},{"id":"w_rectifier_171486","name":"Rectifier","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrical device that converts AC to DC. 1874: Ferdinand Braun discovers the rectifier effect in metal sulfides and metal oxides.","verdict":"Advance: A metal-sulphide rectifier that Braun reported in 1874 was the first semiconductor device and converted AC to DC.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rectifier","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171486"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_rectifier_171486"},{"id":"w_nipkow_disk_1137563","name":"Nipkow disk","year":1884,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Image scanning device. 1884: Paul Nipkow obtains a patent for his Nipkow disk, an image-scanning device that reads images serially, which constitutes the foundation for mechanical television. Two years later, his patent ran out.","verdict":"Advance: Paul Nipkow's 1884 spiral-hole disc scanned images line by line, powering the first mechanical televisions in the 1920s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nipkow_disk","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nipkow_disk_1137563"},{"id":"w_wireless_telegraphy_729856","name":"Wireless telegraphy","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of communication. The Italian Guglielmo Marconi transmits wireless telegraph messages by electromagnetic waves over a distance of five kilometers.","verdict":"Advance: Marconi's 1897 wireless telegraph company enabled ship-to-shore messages, and its distress calls saved 700 Titanic survivors in 1912.","dependencies":["telegraph"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wireless_telegraphy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q729856"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wireless_telegraphy_729856"},{"id":"w_noise_179448","name":"Noise","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Variety of sound, usually meaning any unwanted sound. Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) significantly reduces interfering noises by using a wax cylinder instead of tin foil. This paved the way for commercial success for the improved phonograph.","verdict":"Advance: Bell's acoustic research and later electronic filtering tamed unwanted noise, the problem Shannon's information theory would quantify in 1948.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Noise","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179448"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_noise_179448"},{"id":"w_reel_to_reel_audio_tape_544858","name":"Reel-to-reel audio tape","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Magnetic tape spooled on open reels used for audio recordings with a respective recorder. American Oberlin Smith describes a process to record audio using a cotton thread with integrated fine wire clippings. This makes reel-to-reel audio tape recording possible.","verdict":"Advance: AEG's 1935 Magnetophon tape gave broadcast-quality recording and editing, transforming radio and music production.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reel-to-reel_audio_tape_recording","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q544858"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_reel_to_reel_audio_tape_544858"},{"id":"w_electric_motor_72313","name":"Electric motor","year":1821,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Electromechanical device. 1821 – Michael Faraday builds an electricity-powered motor.","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1821 rotating wire showed electromagnetic motion, a demonstration that became electric motors driving industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_motor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q72313"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1834)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electric_motor_72313"},{"id":"w_thermionic_emission_215259","name":"Thermionic emission","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface. Thomas Edison discovers thermionic emission. This effect forms the basis for the vacuum tube and the cathode ray tube.","verdict":"Advance: Edison's 1880 observation of current from a hot filament led to Fleming's valve and the vacuum tube electronics era.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermionic_emission","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215259"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_thermionic_emission_215259"},{"id":"w_phototube_1787027","name":"Phototube","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Light-sensitive gas-filled or vacuum tube. approximately 1893: The selenium phototube invention allows the conversion of brightness values into electrical signals. The principle is applied in wirephoto and television technology for a short time.","verdict":"Advance: Photoelectric tubes turned light into current, used for sound-on-film playback and early television cameras.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phototube","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1787027"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_phototube_1787027"},{"id":"w_magnetic_storage_1364527","name":"Magnetic storage","year":1878,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Storage of data on a magnetized medium. The Danish physicist Valdemar Poulsen creates the world's first magnetic recording and reproduction, using a 1 mm thick steel wire as a magnetizable carrier.","verdict":"Advance: Oberlin Smith's 1878 proposal and Poulsen's 1898 telegraphone recorded signals magnetically, the lineage of tape, disks and hard drives.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetic_storage","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1364527"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_magnetic_storage_1364527"},{"id":"w_remote_control_185091","name":"Remote control","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical device used to control another device remotely (often wirelessly). Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated the first wireless remote control of a model ship.","verdict":"Advance: Tesla's 1898 radio-controlled boat at Madison Square Garden showed that machines could be steered wirelessly, the basis of remote control.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Remote_control","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185091"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_remote_control_185091"},{"id":"w_radio_control_1436167","name":"Radio control","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Use of radio signals to remotely control a device, vehicle or unmanned vehicle. 1901: The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo began the development of a radio control system, which he called Telekino, to test dirigible balloons of his creation without risking human lives.","verdict":"Advance: Leonardo Torres Quevedo's 1903 Telekino steered a boat by radio commands, laying the foundations of drone control.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radio_control","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1436167"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_radio_control_1436167"},{"id":"w_fleming_valve_41593454","name":"Fleming valve","year":1904,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A vacuum tube used as a detector for early radio receivers. 1904: The Fleming valve, the first vacuum tube and diode, is invented by John Ambrose Fleming.","verdict":"Advance: John Ambrose Fleming's 1904 diode valve rectified radio signals, the first vacuum tube and the start of electronics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fleming_valve","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41593454"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fleming_valve_41593454"},{"id":"w_valve_amplifier_786212","name":"Valve amplifier","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electronic amplifier. Robert von Lieben patented his \"inertia working cathode-ray-relays\". By 1910 he developed this into the first real tube amplifier, by creating a triode.","verdict":"Advance: Robert von Lieben's and de Forest's tube amplifiers made long-distance telephone calls audible and drove radio.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Valve_amplifier","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786212"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_valve_amplifier_786212"},{"id":"w_jukebox_815249","name":"Jukebox","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device to play music singles with. The first jukebox with records comes on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Louis Glass's 1889 nickel-in-the-slot phonograph in San Francisco began paid on-demand music, ancestor of the jukebox era.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jukebox","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815249"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_jukebox_815249"},{"id":"w_crystal_radio_695140","name":"Crystal radio","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Simple radio receiver circuit used mostly for AM reception. American Brigadier General Henry Harrison Chase Dunwoody files for a patent for a carborundum steel detector for use in a crystal radio, an improved version of the Cat's-whisker detector.","verdict":"Advance: Galena \"cat's whisker\" detectors made radios that needed no power, bringing broadcasting to millions in the 1920s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crystal_radio","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695140"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_crystal_radio_695140"},{"id":"w_photodetector_210765","name":"Photodetector","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Sensors of light or other electromagnetic energy. 1907: Rosenthal puts in his image telegraph for the first time a photocell.","verdict":"Advance: Photodetectors, from selenium cells to CCDs, convert light to signals for cameras and fibre optics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photodetector","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210765"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_photodetector_210765"},{"id":"w_film_studio_375336","name":"Film studio","year":1911,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Major entertainment company or motion picture company that has its own privately owned studio facility or facilities that are used to make films, which is handled by the production company. 1911: First film studios are created in Hollywood and Potsdam- Babelsberg.","verdict":"Advance: Hollywood studios from 1911 integrated production and distribution, turning cinema into an industrial art exported worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Film_studio","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q375336"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_film_studio_375336"},{"id":"w_radio_broadcasting_273623","name":"Radio broadcasting","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Distribution of audio content to a dispersed audience via any audio mass communications medium. Alexander Meissner patented his process \"feedback for generating oscillations\", by his development of a radio station using an electron tube.","verdict":"Advance: Reginald Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve voice-and-music transmission began radio broadcasting, which by the 1920s reached millions of homes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radio_broadcasting","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q273623"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_radio_broadcasting_273623"},{"id":"w_internationale_funkausstellung_berlin_695795","name":"Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Trade exhibition in Germany. 1924: the first radio receivers are exhibited at the Berlin Radio Show","verdict":"Advance: Berlin's radio show, launched in 1924, became the venue for consumer electronics debuts, including Germany's first public television demonstrations in 1928 (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IFA_Berlin","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695795"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_internationale_funkausstellung_berlin_695795"},{"id":"w_brunswick_records_994175","name":"Brunswick Records","year":1916,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"US record label. Brunswick Records in Dubuque, Iowa produced their first record player, the Brunswick Panatrope with a pickup, amplifier and loudspeaker","verdict":"Advance: Brunswick's 1925 Panatrope was the first all-electric record player, amplifying discs through a loudspeaker.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brunswick_Records","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q994175"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_brunswick_records_994175"},{"id":"w_lp_record_841983","name":"LP record","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Longplay record. Edison developed the first \" LP \". By dense grooves (16 grooves on 1 mm) and the reduction of speed to 80 min −1 (later 78 min −1) increases the playing time up to 2 times 20 minutes.","verdict":"Advance: Columbia's 1948 33⅓-rpm microgroove LP held 20+ minutes a side, creating the album as an art form.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LP_record","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841983"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lp_record_841983"},{"id":"w_cordless_telephone_1195934","name":"Cordless telephone","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Portable telephone that connects to a landline. The German State Railroad offers a cordless telephone service in moving trains between Berlin and Hamburg – the idea of mobile telephony is born.","verdict":"Advance: German State Railway's 1926 train radiotelephone let passengers call from moving trains, an early wireless telephone service.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cordless_telephone","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1195934"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cordless_telephone_1195934"},{"id":"w_television_set_8075","name":"Television set","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. John Logie Baird developed the first commercial television set in the world. It was not until 1930, he is called a \" telescreen sold \"at a price of 20 pounds.","verdict":"Advance: John Logie Baird demonstrated moving television images in 1926, and electronic sets brought live news and entertainment into homes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Television_set","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_television_set_8075"},{"id":"w_music_box_1365218","name":"Music box","year":1796,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Automatic musical instrument. The first fully electronic music boxes (\" Jukeboxes \") used in the USA on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Antoine Favre's 1796 pinned-cylinder music box brought recorded tunes into the home generations before the phonograph.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Music_box","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1365218"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_music_box_1365218"},{"id":"w_vehicle_audio_1815128","name":"Vehicle audio","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Entertainment electronics in cars. The first industrially manufactured car radio, the \"Philco Transitone\" from the \"Storage Battery Co.\" in Philadelphia, USA, comes on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Motorola's 1930 car radio, sold by the Galvin brothers, made in-car audio common and named the company.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vehicle_audio","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1815128"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_vehicle_audio_1815128"},{"id":"w_shortwave_radio_368646","name":"Shortwave radio","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Radio broadcasting using radiowaves with wavelengths between 10 to 100 meters, and frequencies between 3 to 30 megahertz. The first shortwave radio – Rundfunkübertragung overseas broadcast by the station PCJJ the Philips factories in Eindhoven in the Dutch colonies.","verdict":"Advance: Shortwaves bounce off the ionosphere, letting broadcasters reach other continents from the 1920s, a lifeline under censorship.","dependencies":["w_radio_wave_4262"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shortwave_radio","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q368646"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_shortwave_radio_368646"},{"id":"w_sound_film_848512","name":"Sound film","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A motion picture with synchronized sound. First commercial sound films (\" The Jazz Singer \", USA) using the \"Needle sound\" back in sync with the film screening for LPs over loudspeakers.","verdict":"Advance: De Forest's Phonofilm (1923) and Warner's Vitaphone made The Jazz Singer (1927) possible, ending the silent era within three years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sound_film","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848512"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sound_film_848512"},{"id":"w_tape_recorder_213777","name":"Tape recorder","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Analog or digital electronic device for recording sound on magnetic tape. 1928: Fritz Pfleumer got the first tape recorder patent. It replaces steel wire with paper coated in iron powder. According to Valdemar Poulsen (1898) to the second crucial pioneer of magnetic sound, image and data storage","verdict":"Advance: Fritz Pfleumer's 1928 oxide-coated paper tape began magnetic recording on tape, leading to the AEG Magnetophon.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tape_recorder","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213777"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_tape_recorder_213777"},{"id":"w_dubbing_187657","name":"Dubbing","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Post-production process used in filmmaking and video production. The German physicist Curt Stille (1873–1957) records magnetic sound for film, on a perforated steel band. First, this \"Magnettonverfahren\" has no success. Years later it is rediscovered for amateur films, providing easy dubbing.","verdict":"Advance: Curt Stille's sound-on-film recording techniques eased replacing dialogue, letting films cross languages.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dubbing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187657"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dubbing_187657"},{"id":"w_phosphor_11248330","name":"Phosphor","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Substance that emits light when exposed to some type of radiant energy. Manfred von Ardenne can be the principle of a color picture tube patent: Narrow strips of phosphors in the three primary colors are closely juxtaposed arranged so that they complement each other with the electron flow to white light.","verdict":"Advance: Phosphor coatings turned electron or UV energy into visible light, lighting CRTs and fluorescent tubes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phosphor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11248330"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_phosphor_11248330"},{"id":"w_high_fidelity_26674","name":"High fidelity","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"High-quality reproduction of sound. 1934: First commercial stereo recordings find little favor – the necessary playback devices are still too expensive. The term \" High Fidelity \" is embossed around this time.","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs and EMI work in 1931–34 widened recorded frequency range, making high-fidelity home audio a market.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High_fidelity","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26674"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_high_fidelity_26674"},{"id":"w_1936_summer_olympics_8150","name":"Live TV broadcast of the 1936 Berlin Olympics","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Games of the XI Olympiad, in Berlin, Germany. Olympic Games in Berlin broadcast live.","verdict":"Advance: The first live television broadcast of a major sporting event.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/1936_Summer_Olympics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8150"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_1936_summer_olympics_8150"},{"id":"w_interlaced_video_184915","name":"Interlaced video","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Video displaying technique. The interlaced video method is introduced on TVr to reduce image flicker. The transmitter Witzleben uses the new standard with 441 lines and 25 image changes, i.e. 50 fields of 220 half-lines.","verdict":"Advance: Interlacing split each frame into two fields, halving bandwidth while cutting flicker, the core of analogue TV standards.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interlaced_video","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184915"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_interlaced_video_184915"},{"id":"w_shadow_mask_1192335","name":"Shadow mask","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technology used to manufacture cathode ray tube televisions that produce color images. Werner Flechsig invents the shadow mask method for separate control of the three primary colors in a color picture tube.","verdict":"Advance: Werner Flechsig's 1938 shadow mask aligned three colour beams, making the colour CRT that dominated TV until flat panels.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shadow_mask","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192335"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_shadow_mask_1192335"},{"id":"w_high_definition_television_133454","name":"High-definition television","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"TV resolution standard. The development of television technology for military purposes increases the resolution to 1029 lines at 25 frames per second. Commercial HDTV television reached that resolution almost half a century later.","verdict":"Advance: HDTV, standardized in Japan's MUSE and the US ATSC (1998), brought five times the detail to broadcast pictures.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-definition_television","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133454"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_high_definition_television_133454"},{"id":"w_instant_camera_313695","name":"Instant camera","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of camera. The American physicist and industrialist Edwin Herbert Land (1909–1991) launches the first instant camera, Polaroid camera Model 95 on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin Land's 1948 Polaroid developed prints in a minute, instant photography for millions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Instant_camera","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q313695"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_instant_camera_313695"},{"id":"w_fm_broadcasting_1368380","name":"FM broadcasting","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Radio broadcasting using frequency modulation. In Germany, FM broadcasting starts regular program operation.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin Armstrong's FM (1933) resisted static and gave high-fidelity broadcasts, now standard worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/FM_broadcasting","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1368380","https://grokipedia.com/page/Frequency_modulation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fm_broadcasting_1368380"},{"id":"w_cinemascope_485544","name":"CinemaScope","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early widescreen filming system. 20th Century Fox developed with \" Cinemascope \" the most successful wide-screen process to better compete with television. Only some 50 years later pulls the TV with the 16: 9 size screen after.","verdict":"Advance: Fox's 1953 CinemaScope anamorphic lens doubled screen width, helping cinema compete with television.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CinemaScope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485544"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cinemascope_485544"},{"id":"w_ntsc_185796","name":"NTSC","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Analog television system. The \" National Television System Committee \" (Abbreviated as NTSC) normalized in the USA named after her black-and-white-compatible NTSC -Farbfernseh process. A year later, this method is introduced in the United States.","verdict":"Advance: The 1941 NTSC standard set 525-line US TV and, in 1953, compatible colour, the model for other national systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NTSC","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185796"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ntsc_185796"},{"id":"w_stereo_sound_34678","name":"Stereo sound","year":1881,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of sound reproduction using two audio channels. By merging the Edison patents and the Berliner, the Blumlein stereo recording method becomes commercially viable. The company Mercury Records launches the first stereo record on the market.","verdict":"Advance: Clément Ader's 1881 théâtrophone piped two-channel opera from Paris to listeners, the first stereo broadcast.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stereophonic_sound","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34678"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_stereo_sound_34678"},{"id":"w_camera_obscura_183998","name":"Camera obscura","year":-400,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Optical device that projects an image of its surroundings on a screen. By 400 BC: Camera obscura described by Mo-tzu (or Mozi ) in China.","verdict":"Advance: Mozi described a pinhole projecting an inverted image (c. 400 BCE); the camera obscura later aided Renaissance painters and became the camera.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Camera_obscura","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183998"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_camera_obscura_183998"},{"id":"w_baghdad_battery_643309","name":"Baghdad Battery","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set of three artifacts which were found together: a ceramic pot, a tube of one metal, and a rod of another. 3rd century BC – The Baghdad Battery is dated from this period.","verdict":"Advance: A disputed artifact; it may never have been used as a battery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Baghdad_Battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q643309"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_baghdad_battery_643309"},{"id":"w_reflection_165939","name":"Reflection","year":130,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. 130 AD – Claudius Ptolemy (in his work Optics ) wrote about the properties of light including: reflection, refraction, and color and tabulated angles of refraction for several media","verdict":"Advance: Hero of Alexandria showed that reflected light takes the shortest path, an early variational principle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reflection_(physics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165939"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_reflection_165939"},{"id":"w_magnetic_declination_243289","name":"Magnetic declination","year":1088,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic north and true north. 1088 – Shen Kuo first recognizes magnetic declination.","verdict":"Advance: Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays (1088) recorded magnetic declination, centuries before Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetic_declination","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q243289"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_magnetic_declination_243289"},{"id":"w_optical_microscope_912313","name":"Optical microscope","year":1590,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Microscope that uses visible light. 1590: earliest date of a claimed Hans Martens/ Zacharias Janssen invention of the compound microscope (claim made in 1655).","verdict":"Advance: The Janssens' compound microscope (c. 1590) led to Hooke's cells and Leeuwenhoek's microbes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_microscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912313"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_optical_microscope_912313"},{"id":"w_huygens_fresnel_principle_188321","name":"Huygens–Fresnel principle","year":1678,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of analysis. 1678 – Christiaan Huygens states his principle of wavefront sources and demonstrates the refraction and diffraction of light rays.","verdict":"Advance: Huygens's 1678 wavelet principle, refined by Fresnel, explains diffraction and wave propagation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Huygens%E2%80%93Fresnel_principle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188321"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_huygens_fresnel_principle_188321"},{"id":"w_electrostatic_generator_2304371","name":"Electrostatic generator","year":1663,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that generates electrical charge on a high voltage electrode. 1663 – Otto von Guericke: first electrostatic generator","verdict":"Advance: Otto von Guericke's 1663 sulphur-globe machine generated static charge on demand, starting experimental electricity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrostatic_generator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2304371"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electrostatic_generator_2304371"},{"id":"w_lac_15112450","name":"Lac","year":1734,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Resinous secretion of lac insects. 1734 – Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (inspired by Gray's work to perform electrical experiments) dispels the effluvia theory by his paper in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, describing his discover…","verdict":"Advance: The resin from lac insects gave sealing wax, varnish and, in 1734, insulators for DuFay's electricity experiments, before synthetics existed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_%28resin%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15112450"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_lac_15112450"},{"id":"w_refraction_72277","name":"Refraction","year":1740,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"In physics, the change in direction of a wave at the interface between two media. 1740 – Jean le Rond d'Alembert, in Mémoire sur la réfraction des corps solides, explains the process of refraction.","verdict":"Advance: D'Alembert and Euler's 18th-century refraction theory advanced optics toward wave models.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Refraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q72277"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_refraction_72277"},{"id":"w_dielectric_184996","name":"Dielectric","year":1745,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrically poorly conducting or non-conducting, non-metallic substance in which charge carriers are generally not free to move. 1745 – Ewald Georg von Kleist of independently invents the capacitor: a glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal sphere.","verdict":"Advance: Insulating dielectrics let capacitors store energy and cables carry current safely, from the Leyden jar's glass to modern film capacitors.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dielectric","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184996"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_dielectric_184996"},{"id":"w_bioelectricity_55605484","name":"Bioelectricity","year":1791,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Regulation of cell, tissue, and organ-level patterning and behavior as the result of endogenous electrically-mediated signaling..","verdict":"Advance: Galvani's twitching frog legs (1791) revealed that bodies run on electricity, a finding behind ECGs, pacemakers and research on bioelectric patterning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Developmental_bioelectricity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55605484"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bioelectricity_55605484"},{"id":"w_infrared_radiation_11388","name":"Infrared radiation","year":1800,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light. 1800 – William Herschel discovers infrared radiation from the Sun.","verdict":"Advance: William Herschel's 1800 discovery of infrared revealed light beyond the visible.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Infrared","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11388"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_infrared_radiation_11388"},{"id":"w_voltaic_pile_663273","name":"Voltaic pile","year":1800,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"First electrical battery that could continuously provide an electric current to a circuit. 1800 – Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, or \"battery\", specifically to disprove Galvani's animal electricity theory.","verdict":"Advance: Alessandro Volta's 1800 pile of zinc–copper discs gave the first continuous current, enabling electrolysis and electromagnetism research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Voltaic_pile","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q663273"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_voltaic_pile_663273"},{"id":"w_ultraviolet_radiation_11391","name":"Ultraviolet radiation","year":1801,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Form of electromagnetic radiation. 1801 – Johann Ritter discovers ultraviolet radiation from the Sun","verdict":"Advance: Johann Ritter's 1801 discovery of ultraviolet extended the spectrum beyond violet.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ultraviolet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ultraviolet_radiation_11391"},{"id":"w_double_slit_experiment_217785","name":"Double-slit experiment","year":1803,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Experiment in quantum mechanics that shows wave–particle duality. 1803 – Thomas Young develops the Double-slit experiment and demonstrates the effect of interference.","verdict":"Advance: Young's 1803 double-slit experiment demonstrated wave interference; single-photon versions show quantum duality.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Double-slit_experiment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_double_slit_experiment_217785"},{"id":"w_polarization_193760","name":"Polarization","year":1808,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Property of waves that can oscillate with more than one orientation. 1808 – Étienne-Louis Malus discovers polarization by reflection","verdict":"Advance: Étienne-Louis Malus's 1808 discovery of polarization led to sunglasses and LCD screens.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polarization_(waves)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_polarization_193760"},{"id":"w_birefringence_108779","name":"Birefringence","year":1816,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Optical phenomenon. 1816 – David Brewster discovers stress birefringence","verdict":"Advance: David Brewster's 1816 stress birefringence enables photoelastic engineering analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Birefringence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108779"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_birefringence_108779"},{"id":"w_ohm_s_law_41591","name":"Ohm's law","year":1827,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Relationship between voltage and current across an ideal resistor. 1826 – Georg Simon Ohm states his Ohm's law of electrical resistance in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, and also published in his landmark pamphlet Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet in 1827.","verdict":"Advance: Ohm's 1827 law, V = IR, is the basic equation of circuit analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ohm's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41591"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ohm_s_law_41591"},{"id":"w_thermopile_915693","name":"Thermopile","year":1831,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy. 1831 – Macedonio Melloni uses a thermopile to detect infrared radiation","verdict":"Advance: Leopoldo Nobili and Macedonio Melloni's stacked thermocouples measured infrared heat precisely, showing radiant heat obeys optical laws.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermopile","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q915693"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_thermopile_915693"},{"id":"w_lenz_s_law_192288","name":"Lenz's law","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electromagnetic phenomena where changing magnetic fields induce currents with opposing fields.","verdict":"Advance: Heinrich Lenz's 1834 law states induced currents oppose their cause, explaining eddy-current braking.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lenz's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192288"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lenz_s_law_192288"},{"id":"w_electrochemical_equivalent_906040","name":"Electrochemical equivalent","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mass deposited per unit charge. 1833 – Michael Faraday announces his law of electrochemical equivalents","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1833 laws of electrolysis linked charge to mass deposited, showing that electricity comes in discrete units before the electron.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrochemical_equivalent","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q906040"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electrochemical_equivalent_906040"},{"id":"w_electromotive_force_185329","name":"Electromotive force","year":1834,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scalar physical quantity homogeneous to a voltage, expressing the modulus of the force exerted on a charge in an electric field. 1834 – Heinrich Lenz determines the direction of the induced electromotive force (emf) and current resulting from electromagnetic induction.","verdict":"Advance: Volta's and later Faraday's concept of electromotive force quantified what drives current, the basis of circuit theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electromotive_force","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185329"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electromotive_force_185329"},{"id":"w_cooke_and_wheatstone_telegraph_5167034","name":"Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph","year":1836,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early electrical telegraph system dating from the 1830s. 1836 – William Fothergill Cooke invents a mechanical telegraph. 1837 with Charles Wheatstone invents the Cooke and Wheatstone needle telegraph.","verdict":"Advance: Cooke and Wheatstone's needle telegraph signalled along the Great Western Railway in 1839, the first commercial electrical telegraph.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cooke_and_Wheatstone_telegraph","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5167034"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cooke_and_wheatstone_telegraph_5167034"},{"id":"w_cathode_ray_207340","name":"Cathode ray","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Stream of electrons observed in vacuum tubes. 1838 – Michael Faraday uses Volta's battery to discover cathode rays.","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1838 glow discharges led to cathode rays and Thomson's 1897 electron.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cathode_ray","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207340"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cathode_ray_207340"},{"id":"w_photoelectric_effect_83213","name":"Photoelectric effect","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Emission of electrons when light hits a material. 1839 – Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observes the photoelectric effect with an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.","verdict":"Advance: Becquerel's photovoltaic effect of 1839 led to solar cells, and Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect won the 1921 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photoelectric_effect","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83213"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_photoelectric_effect_83213"},{"id":"w_stokes_parameters_1192058","name":"Stokes parameters","year":1852,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1852 – George Gabriel Stokes defines the Stokes parameters of polarization","verdict":"Advance: George Stokes's 1852 parameters describe polarized light fully, used in astronomy and optical communications.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stokes_parameters","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192058"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stokes_parameters_1192058"},{"id":"w_valence_171407","name":"Valence","year":1852,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Measure of an element's combining capacity with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules. 1852 – Edward Frankland develops the theory of chemical valence","verdict":"Advance: Edward Frankland's 1852 valence concept explained how atoms combine, guiding structural chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Valence_(chemistry)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171407"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_valence_171407"},{"id":"w_amp_re_s_circuital_law_51500","name":"Ampère's circuital law","year":1826,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. 1826 – Ampère's circuital law","verdict":"Advance: Ampère's law tied current to magnetic field.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amp%C3%A8re's_circuital_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q51500"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_amp_re_s_circuital_law_51500"},{"id":"w_first_transcontinental_telegraph_5453918","name":"First Transcontinental Telegraph","year":1861,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"American telecommunication circuit. 1861 – the first transcontinental telegraph system spans North America by connecting an existing network in the eastern United States to a small network in California by a link between Omaha and Carson City via Salt Lake City.","verdict":"Advance: The 1861 transcontinental telegraph linked California to the east in seconds, ending the Pony Express two days after completion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/First_transcontinental_telegraph","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5453918"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_first_transcontinental_telegraph_5453918"},{"id":"w_crookes_tube_1537374","name":"Crookes tube","year":1869,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early type of cathode ray tube. 1869 – William Crookes invents the Crookes tube.","verdict":"Advance: William Crookes's 1870s tubes produced cathode rays, leading to X-rays and the electron.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crookes_tube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1537374"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_crookes_tube_1537374"},{"id":"w_rayleigh_scattering_193709","name":"Rayleigh scattering","year":1871,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Elastic scattering of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, by particles of size much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. 1871 – Lord Rayleigh discusses the blue sky law and sunsets ( Rayleigh scattering )","verdict":"Advance: Lord Rayleigh's 1871 scattering law explained why the sky is blue.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rayleigh_scattering","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193709"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_rayleigh_scattering_193709"},{"id":"w_stefan_boltzmann_law_704747","name":"Stefan-Boltzmann law","year":1879,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Physical law on the emissive power of black body. 1879 – Jožef Stefan discovers the Stefan–Boltzmann radiation law of a black body and uses it to calculate the first sensible value of the temperature of the Sun's surface to be 5700 K","verdict":"Advance: Jožef Stefan's 1879 fourth-power law for radiated heat lets astronomers size stars and climate scientists model Earth's balance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q704747"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_stefan_boltzmann_law_704747"},{"id":"w_direct_current_159241","name":"Direct current","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Unidirectional flow of electric charge. 1882 – Edison switches on the world's first electrical power distribution system, providing 110 volts direct current (DC) to 59 customers.","verdict":"Advance: Edison's 1882 Pearl Street station powered lower Manhattan with DC, the first central power grid.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Direct_current","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159241"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_direct_current_159241"},{"id":"w_inductance_177897","name":"Inductance","year":1886,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Property of electrical conductors to oppose changes in current flow. 1886 – Oliver Heaviside coins the term inductance.","verdict":"Advance: Heaviside's 1886 inductance concept explained how to load telephone lines for long distance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inductance","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177897"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_inductance_177897"},{"id":"w_li_nard_wiechert_potential_1338843","name":"Liénard–Wiechert potential","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electromagnetic effect of point charges. 1900 – The Liénard–Wiechert potentials are introduced as time-dependent (retarded) electrodynamic potentials","verdict":"Advance: Liénard and Wiechert's 1898–1900 potentials describe fields of moving charges, used in synchrotron design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1338843"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_li_nard_wiechert_potential_1338843"},{"id":"w_ultraviolet_catastrophe_1399710","name":"Ultraviolet catastrophe","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Classical physics prediction that black body radiation grows unbounded with frequency. 1900 – Max Planck resolves the ultraviolet catastrophe by suggesting that black-body radiation consists of discrete packets, or quanta, of energy.","verdict":"Advance: Planck resolved the ultraviolet catastrophe in 1900 by quantizing energy, beginning quantum physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ultraviolet_catastrophe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1399710"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ultraviolet_catastrophe_1399710"},{"id":"w_mount_wilson_observatory_466863","name":"Mount Wilson Observatory","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Astronomical observatory in Los Angeles County, California. 1919 – Albert A. Michelson makes the first interferometric measurements of stellar diameters at Mount Wilson Observatory (see history of astronomical interferometry )","verdict":"Advance: Mount Wilson's telescopes (1917 Hooker) measured Betelgeuse's size and found the expanding universe.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mount_Wilson_Observatory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1904)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mount_wilson_observatory_466863"},{"id":"w_astronomical_interferometer_17004698","name":"Astronomical interferometer","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Array of separate telescopes, mirror segments, or radio telescope antennas that work together as a single telescope. 1946 – Martin Ryle and Vonberg build the first two-element astronomical radio interferometer (see history of astronomical interferometry )","verdict":"Advance: Linking telescopes into one giant instrument.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Astronomical_interferometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17004698"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_astronomical_interferometer_17004698"},{"id":"w_jefimenko_s_equations_1321084","name":"Jefimenko's equations","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Solution for electric field and magnetic field due to a distribution of moving electric charges and electric current in space. 1966 – Oleg Jefimenko introduces time-dependent (retarded) generalizations of Coulomb's law and the Biot–Savart law","verdict":"Advance: Oleg Jefimenko's 1966 equations give fields directly from charge and current distributions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jefimenko's_equations","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321084"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_jefimenko_s_equations_1321084"},{"id":"w_galilean_moons_3203","name":"Galilean moons","year":1610,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Four largest moons of Jupiter. 1610 – Galileo Galilei: discovered the Galilean moons of Jupiter","verdict":"Advance: Galileo's discovery of Jupiter's moons (1610) showed not everything orbits Earth.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Galilean_moons","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3203"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_galilean_moons_3203"},{"id":"w_inertia_122508","name":"Inertia","year":1613,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The tendency of an object to remain in its existing state of motion is called its inertia. 1613 – Galileo Galilei: Inertia","verdict":"Advance: Galileo's inertia principle (1613) overturned Aristotle and became Newton's first law.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inertia","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122508"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_inertia_122508"},{"id":"w_galilean_invariance_2481895","name":"Galilean invariance","year":1632,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Principle in classical mechanics stating that the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames. 1632 – Galileo Galilei: The Galilean principle (the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames )","verdict":"Advance: Galileo's relativity (1632) showed motion is the same in all uniformly moving frames, the root of Einstein's theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Galilean_invariance","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2481895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_galilean_invariance_2481895"},{"id":"w_pascal_s_law_190760","name":"Pascal's law","year":1653,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Principle in fluid mechanics. 1660 – Blaise Pascal: Pascal's law","verdict":"Advance: Pascal's law (1653) that pressure acts equally in a fluid underlies hydraulic presses and brakes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pascal's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pascal_s_law_190760"},{"id":"w_hooke_s_law_170282","name":"Hooke's law","year":1660,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Empirical physical law of mechanics that the force on a spring is proportional to its displacement. 1660 – Robert Hooke: Hooke's law","verdict":"Advance: Robert Hooke's 1660 spring law, force proportional to extension, founded the theory of elasticity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hooke's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170282"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hooke_s_law_170282"},{"id":"w_boyle_s_law_175974","name":"Boyle's law","year":1662,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Experimental gas law. 1660 – Robert Boyle experimentally discovers Boyle's law, relating the pressure and volume of a gas (published 1662)","verdict":"Advance: Robert Boyle's 1662 law showed gas pressure varies inversely with volume, an early quantitative gas law.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boyle's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175974"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_boyle_s_law_175974"},{"id":"w_r_mer_s_determination_of_the_speed_of_li_2898393","name":"Rømer's determination of the speed of light","year":1676,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1676 experiment which showed that light has finite speed. 1676 – Ole Rømer: Rømer's determination of the speed of light traveling from the moons of Jupiter.","verdict":"Advance: Ole Rømer timed Io's eclipses in 1676 to show light has a finite speed, about 220,000 km/s by his estimate.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R%C3%B8mer's_determination_of_the_speed_of_light","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2898393"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_r_mer_s_determination_of_the_speed_of_li_2898393"},{"id":"w_kinetic_theory_200286","name":"Kinetic theory","year":1738,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical model explaining macroscopic properties of gases in microscopic terms. 1738 – Daniel Bernoulli: First model of the kinetic theory of gases","verdict":"Advance: Bernoulli's 1738 kinetic theory explained gas pressure by molecular motion, which Maxwell and Boltzmann completed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kinetic_theory_of_gases","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200286"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kinetic_theory_200286"},{"id":"w_kite_experiment_3062485","name":"Kite experiment","year":1752,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Science experiment on lightning and electricity. 1752 – Benjamin Franklin: kite experiment","verdict":"Advance: Franklin's 1752 kite experiment showed lightning is electrical and led to lightning rods.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kite_experiment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3062485"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kite_experiment_3062485"},{"id":"w_lagrangian_mechanics_324669","name":"Lagrangian mechanics","year":1788,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Formulation of classical mechanics based on the Lagrangian function on the tangent bundle of configuration space. 1760 – Joseph-Louis Lagrange: Lagrangian mechanics","verdict":"Advance: 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chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Conservation_of_mass","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483948"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_conservation_of_mass_483948"},{"id":"w_heat_equation_6510488","name":"Heat equation","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Partial differential equation for distribution of heat in a given region over time. 1822 – Joseph Fourier: Heat equation","verdict":"Advance: Fourier's 1822 heat equation describes diffusion, a model now applied in finance and image 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simple equations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ideal_gas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172280"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ideal_gas_172280"},{"id":"w_hamiltonian_mechanics_477921","name":"Hamiltonian mechanics","year":1833,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Formulation of classical mechanics in terms of phase space and Hamiltonian function. 1833 – William Rowan Hamilton: Hamiltonian mechanics","verdict":"Advance: Hamilton's 1833 mechanics, using phase space, became the framework of quantum mechanics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hamiltonian_mechanics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477921"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hamiltonian_mechanics_477921"},{"id":"w_line_of_force_611322","name":"Line of force","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Historical concept in electromagnetism. 1838 – Michael Faraday: Lines of force","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1838 lines of force visualized fields, inspiring Maxwell's equations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Line_of_force","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q611322"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_line_of_force_611322"},{"id":"w_faraday_effect_848501","name":"Faraday effect","year":1845,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical law. 1845 – Michael Faraday: Faraday rotation (interaction of light and magnetic field)","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1845 magneto-optic rotation linked light and magnetism, used in optical 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viscosity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mean_free_path","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q756307"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mean_free_path_756307"},{"id":"w_statistical_mechanics_188715","name":"Statistical mechanics","year":1860,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physics of large number of particles' statistical behavior. 1860 – James Clerk Maxwell: Introduced statistical mechanics with the Maxwell distribution","verdict":"Advance: Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs's statistical mechanics derived thermodynamics from molecular statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Statistical_mechanics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188715"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_statistical_mechanics_188715"},{"id":"w_black_body_161424","name":"Black body","year":1859,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation. 1859 – Gustav Kirchhoff shows that energy emission from a black body is a function of only temperature and frequency","verdict":"Advance: Kirchhoff's 1860 black body defined ideal radiation, the puzzle that launched quantum theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Black_body","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161424"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_black_body_161424"},{"id":"w_entropy_45003","name":"Entropy","year":1865,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Physical property of the state of a system, measure of disorder. 1854 – Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy","verdict":"Advance: Clausius's entropy (1865) quantified 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behavior as it travels through space. 1887 – Heinrich Rudolf Hertz: Electromagnetic waves","verdict":"Advance: Heinrich Hertz's 1887 radio waves confirmed Maxwell's theory and led to wireless.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electromagnetic_radiation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12969754"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_electromagnetic_radiation_12969754"},{"id":"w_rydberg_formula_661248","name":"Rydberg formula","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Formula for spectral line wavelengths in alkali metals. 1888 – Johannes Rydberg: Rydberg formula","verdict":"Advance: Johannes Rydberg's 1888 formula predicted spectral lines, which Bohr's model explained.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rydberg_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q661248"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_rydberg_formula_661248"},{"id":"w_lorentz_ether_theory_1870029","name":"Lorentz ether theory","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Defunct theory of electromagnetism. 1889, 1892 – Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction","verdict":"Advance: Lorentz and FitzGerald's 1889–92 length contraction anticipated relativity before Einstein dropped the ether.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lorentz_ether_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1870029"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lorentz_ether_theory_1870029"},{"id":"w_wien_s_displacement_law_214336","name":"Wien's displacement law","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relation between the wavelength of the black-body radiation curve peak and the temperature. 1893 – Wilhelm Wien: Wien's displacement law for black-body radiation","verdict":"Advance: Wilhelm Wien's 1893 displacement law relates temperature to peak wavelength, used to measure stars.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wien's_displacement_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214336"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_wien_s_displacement_law_214336"},{"id":"w_zeeman_effect_201805","name":"Zeeman effect","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Effect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field. 1896 – Pieter Zeeman: Zeeman effect","verdict":"Advance: Pieter Zeeman's 1896 splitting of spectral lines by magnetism revealed the electron's properties.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zeeman_effect","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201805"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_zeeman_effect_201805"},{"id":"w_gamma_ray_11523","name":"Gamma ray","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electromagnetic radiation of high frequency and high energy. 1900 – Paul Villard: Gamma rays","verdict":"Advance: Paul Villard's 1900 gamma rays, high-energy photons, are now used in cancer therapy and astronomy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gamma_ray","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11523"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gamma_ray_11523"},{"id":"w_plum_pudding_model_274116","name":"Plum pudding model","year":1904,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scientific model of the atom first proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904. 1898: J.J. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of an atom","verdict":"Advance: Thomson's 1904 plum pudding model was the first atomic model with electrons; Rutherford overturned it in 1911.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plum_pudding_model","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q274116"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_plum_pudding_model_274116"},{"id":"w_minkowski_spacetime_464794","name":"Minkowski spacetime","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical space setting which eases explanation of special relativity. 1908 – Hermann Minkowski: Minkowski space","verdict":"Advance: Hermann Minkowski's 1908 spacetime unified space and time geometrically for relativity.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_spacetime","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q464794"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_minkowski_spacetime_464794"},{"id":"w_noether_s_theorem_578555","name":"Noether's theorem","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Physical law that differentiable symmetries correspond to conservation laws. 1915 – Emmy Noether: Noether's theorem relates symmetries to conservation laws.","verdict":"Advance: Emmy Noether's 1915 theorem linked symmetries to conservation laws, a foundation of physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Noether's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q578555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_noether_s_theorem_578555"},{"id":"w_schwarzschild_metric_742969","name":"Schwarzschild metric","year":1916,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Spherically symmetric static vacuum solution of Einstein’s field equations with zero cosmological constant. 1916 – Schwarzschild metric modeling gravity outside a large sphere","verdict":"Advance: Schwarzschild's 1916 solution to Einstein's equations described black holes and planetary orbits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Schwarzschild_metric","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q742969"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_schwarzschild_metric_742969"},{"id":"w_kaluza_klein_theory_944095","name":"Kaluza–Klein theory","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Field theory on a spacetime with small, compact extra dimensions beyond the large observed dimensions. 1919–1926 – Kaluza–Klein theory proposing unification of gravity and electromagnetism","verdict":"Advance: Kaluza and Klein's 1919–26 extra dimension unified gravity and electromagnetism, inspiring string theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kaluza_klein_theory_944095"},{"id":"w_friedmann_lema_tre_robertson_walker_metr_742982","name":"Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric","year":1922,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Metric properties of the spacetime based on Albert Einstein's metric tensor and field solution for the spacetime. 1922–37 – Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric cosmological model","verdict":"Advance: Friedmann's 1922 expanding-universe solutions, later Lemaître's, underpin Big Bang cosmology.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q742982"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_friedmann_lema_tre_robertson_walker_metr_742982"},{"id":"w_stern_gerlach_experiment_743142","name":"Stern–Gerlach experiment","year":1923,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical experiment that demonstrated the quantization of angular momentum. 1923 – Stern–Gerlach experiment","verdict":"Advance: Stern and Gerlach's 1922 experiment showed spin quantization, a principle behind MRI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q743142"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stern_gerlach_experiment_743142"},{"id":"w_bose_einstein_statistics_191076","name":"Bose-Einstein statistics","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Statistical description for the behaviour of bosons. 1924 – Bose–Einstein statistics","verdict":"Advance: Satyendra Nath Bose's 1924 statistics, extended by Einstein, predicted Bose–Einstein 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a key route to quantum gravity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AdS%2FCFT_correspondence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q543413"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ads_cft_correspondence_543413"},{"id":"w_slow_light_4165224","name":"Slow light","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Propagation of an optical pulse at a very low group velocity. 1999 – Lene Vestergaard Hau: Slow light experimentally demonstrated","verdict":"Advance: Lene Hau's 1999 experiment slowed light to 17 m/s in a Bose–Einstein condensate.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Slow_light","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4165224"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1991)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_slow_light_4165224"},{"id":"w_quark_gluon_plasma_733096","name":"Quark–gluon plasma","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Phase of quantum chromodynamics characterised by an assembly of quarks and gluons at thermal and chemical equilibrium. 2000 – Quark–gluon plasma found","verdict":"Advance: CERN's 2000 quark–gluon plasma evidence, confirmed by RHIC, recreated early-universe conditions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q733096"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quark_gluon_plasma_733096"},{"id":"w_giant_magnetoresistance_58353","name":"Giant magnetoresistance","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect. 2007 – Giant magnetoresistance recognized (Nobel prize, Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg)","verdict":"Advance: Fert and Grünberg's 1988 giant magnetoresistance made multi-gigabyte disk heads possible, earning the 2007 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Giant_magnetoresistance","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58353"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_giant_magnetoresistance_58353"},{"id":"w_topological_order_17165159","name":"Topological order","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Order at absolute zero characterized by robust ground state degeneracy, quantized non-Abelian geometric phases, anyonic excitations, and long-range entanglement. 2016 – Topological order – topological phase transitions and order – recognized (Nobel prize, David J. Thouless, F. Duncan M. Haldane and J. Michael Kosterlitz)","verdict":"Advance: Haldane, Kosterlitz and Thouless's 2016 Nobel recognized topological phases of matter.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Topological_order","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17165159"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_topological_order_17165159"},{"id":"w_gravitational_wave_background_5598005","name":"Gravitational wave background","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Random gravitational-wave signal potentially detectable by gravitational wave experiments. 2023 – Experimental evidence of stochastic gravitational wave background","verdict":"Advance: NANOGrav and other pulsar timing arrays found evidence of a gravitational-wave background in 2023.","dependencies":["w_gravitational_wave_190035"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gravitational_wave_background","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5598005"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gravitational_wave_background_5598005"},{"id":"w_neutrino_astronomy_1801478","name":"Neutrino astronomy","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Observational astronomy that benefits from the direct, or indirect, detection of neutrinos. 2023 – First \"image\" of the Milky Way in neutrinos instead of light","verdict":"Advance: IceCube's 2023 neutrino image of the Milky Way was the first galactic map made with neutrinos.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neutrino_astronomy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_neutrino_astronomy_1801478"},{"id":"w_3d_reconstruction_4464732","name":"DESI 3D map of the universe","year":2024,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & 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energy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/3D_reconstruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4464732"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_3d_reconstruction_4464732"},{"id":"w_continental_drift_178605","name":"Continental drift","year":1596,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Movement of Earth's continents relative to each other. 1596 – Abraham Ortelius, Flemish-Spanish cartographer, first envisages the continental drift theory.","verdict":"Advance: Ortelius noted in 1596 that the Americas seemed torn from Europe and Africa, an idea Wegener developed in 1912.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Continental_drift","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178605"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_continental_drift_178605"},{"id":"w_catastrophism_826716","name":"Catastrophism","year":1813,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scientific theory following which the Earth has largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. 1813 – Georges Cuvier publishes his Essay on the Theory of the Earth, proposing catastrophism on the basis of his work in biostratigraphy","verdict":"Advance: Georges Cuvier's catastrophism explained extinctions by sudden events, partly vindicated by the Chicxulub impact.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catastrophism","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q826716"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_catastrophism_826716"},{"id":"w_ice_age_49367","name":"Ice age","year":1837,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. 1837 – Louis Agassiz begins his glaciation studies which eventually demonstrate that the Earth has had at least one ice age","verdict":"Advance: Louis Agassiz's 1837 ice-age theory explained glacial landscapes and boulders.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ice_age","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49367"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ice_age_49367"},{"id":"w_nappe_1479638","name":"Nappe","year":1884,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of rock. 1884 – Marcel Alexandre Bertrand, Nappe and Thrust fault theory","verdict":"Advance: Marcel Bertrand's 1884 nappe theory explained Alpine folding through thrust faults.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nappe","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1479638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nappe_1479638"},{"id":"w_metamorphism_380971","name":"Metamorphism","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Change of minerals in rocks without melting into magma, occurring due to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. 1912 – George Barrow maps zones of metamorphism (the Barrovian sequence) in southern Scotland","verdict":"Advance: Studies of rocks transformed by heat and pressure explain marble, slate and the mountain-building cycle of plate tectonics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metamorphism","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380971"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_metamorphism_380971"},{"id":"w_metamorphic_facies_1925062","name":"Metamorphic facies","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of metamorphic mineral assemblages that are formed under similar pressures and temperatures. 1915 – Pentti Eskola develops the concept of metamorphic facies","verdict":"Advance: Pentti Eskola's 1915 metamorphic facies read pressure and temperature history from rocks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metamorphic_facies","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1925062"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_metamorphic_facies_1925062"},{"id":"w_igneous_rock_42045","name":"Igneous rock","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"One of the three main rock types; formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. 1928 – N. L. Bowen publishes The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks, revolutionizing experimental igneous petrology","verdict":"Advance: N. L. Bowen's 1928 reaction series explained how magma crystallizes into different igneous rocks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Igneous_rock","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42045"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_igneous_rock_42045"},{"id":"w_nickel_strunz_classification_928461","name":"Nickel–Strunz classification","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scheme for categorizing minerals. 1941 – Nickel-Strunz classification, Karl H. Strunz, Mineralogische Tabellen","verdict":"Advance: Karl Strunz's 1941 mineral classification by chemistry remains the international standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nickel%E2%80%93Strunz_classification","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q928461"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nickel_strunz_classification_928461"},{"id":"w_subduction_176318","name":"Subduction","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Geological process at tectonic plate boundaries. 1951 – Alfred Rittmann links subduction, volcanism and the Wadati–Benioff zone","verdict":"Advance: Alfred Rittmann's 1951 link of subduction to volcanism anticipated plate tectonics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Subduction","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176318"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_subduction_176318"},{"id":"w_seismic_moment_1481983","name":"Seismic moment","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Product of the shear modulus, area of rupture along the fault, and the average slip. 1966 – Keiiti Aki discovers the seismic moment ( M 0 {\\displaystyle M_{0}} )","verdict":"Advance: Keiiti Aki's 1966 seismic moment measured earthquake size physically, leading to the moment magnitude scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seismic_moment","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1481983"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_seismic_moment_1481983"},{"id":"w_carved_stone_ball_1046113","name":"Carved stone ball","year":-2000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Petrosphere dating from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age, mainly found in and around Scotland. ca. 2000 BC – Scotland, carved stone balls exhibit a variety of symmetries including all of the symmetries of Platonic solids.","verdict":"Advance: More than 400 of these Neolithic Scottish spheres are known, many carved with near-symmetric knobs; whatever their purpose, they show precise geometry worked in stone.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carved_stone_balls","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1046113"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_carved_stone_ball_1046113"},{"id":"w_moscow_mathematical_papyrus_926547","name":"Moscow Mathematical Papyrus","year":-1800,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient Egyptian mathematical manuscript. 1800 BC – Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, findings volume of a frustum","verdict":"Advance: The Moscow Papyrus (c. 1850 BCE) computes a frustum's volume correctly, an impressive feat of Egyptian geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Moscow_Mathematical_Papyrus","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q926547"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_moscow_mathematical_papyrus_926547"},{"id":"w_lune_3518248","name":"Lune","year":-470,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Shape. 470 BC – 410 BC – Greece, Hippocrates of Chios utilizes lunes in an attempt to square the circle.","verdict":"Advance: Hippocrates of Chios squared certain lunes (c. 440 BCE), the first exact curved-area result.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lune_(geometry)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3518248"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lune_3518248"},{"id":"w_apastamba_dharmasutra_3457276","name":"Apastamba Dharmasutra","year":-450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"One of the oldest Dharma texts of Hinduism. 5th century BC – Apastamba, author of the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, another Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, makes an attempt at squaring the circle and also calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places","verdict":"Advance: The Sulba Sutras' altar geometry; early Indian mathematics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apastamba_Dharmasutra","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3457276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_apastamba_dharmasutra_3457276"},{"id":"w_method_of_exhaustion_865019","name":"Method of exhaustion","year":-450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Primitive way of calculating area. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit.","verdict":"Advance: Antiphon and Eudoxus's method of exhaustion, used by Archimedes, foreshadowed integral calculus.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Method_of_exhaustion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q865019"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_method_of_exhaustion_865019"},{"id":"w_conic_section_124255","name":"Conic section","year":-225,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Curve obtained by intersecting a cone and a plane. 225 BC – Apollonius of Perga writes On Conic Sections and names the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola,","verdict":"Advance: Apollonius's Conics (c. 200 BCE) named the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola, which Kepler and Newton used for orbits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Conic_section","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124255"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_conic_section_124255"},{"id":"w_pappus_s_hexagon_theorem_851166","name":"Pappus's hexagon theorem","year":340,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem that, if the vertices of a hexagon lie alternately on two lines, then the three pairs of opposite sides meet in three collinear points. c. 340—Greece, Pappus of Alexandria states his hexagon theorem and his centroid theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Pappus's hexagon theorem (c. 340) became a foundation of projective geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pappus's_hexagon_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q851166"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pappus_s_hexagon_theorem_851166"},{"id":"w_law_of_sines_170181","name":"Law of sines","year":1000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Property of all triangles on a Euclidean plane. ca. 1000 – Law of sines is discovered by Muslim mathematicians, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, and Abu al-Wafa.","verdict":"Advance: Abu al-Wafa and al-Biruni's law of sines (c. 1000) made triangle solution routine in astronomy and surveying.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Law_of_sines","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170181"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_law_of_sines_170181"},{"id":"w_kepler_poinsot_polyhedron_1023978","name":"Kepler–Poinsot polyhedron","year":1619,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Regular star polyhedron. 1619 – Johannes Kepler discovers two of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.","verdict":"Advance: Kepler's 1619 star polyhedra extended the regular solids, completed by Poinsot in 1809.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kepler%E2%80%93Poinsot_polyhedron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1023978"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kepler_poinsot_polyhedron_1023978"},{"id":"w_parallel_postulate_207014","name":"Parallel postulate","year":1733,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Axiom in Euclidean geometry. 1733 – Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false,","verdict":"Advance: Saccheri's 1733 attempt to prove the parallel postulate laid groundwork for non-Euclidean geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parallel_postulate","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207014"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_parallel_postulate_207014"},{"id":"w_heptadecagon_542476","name":"Heptadecagon","year":1796,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polygon with 17 sides. 1796 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves that the regular 17-gon can be constructed using only a compass and straightedge","verdict":"Advance: Gauss's 1796 construction of the 17-gon solved a 2,000-year-old problem and launched his career.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heptadecagon","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q542476"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heptadecagon_542476"},{"id":"w_angle_trisection_733081","name":"Angle trisection","year":1837,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Construction of an angle equal to one third a given angle. 1837 – Pierre Wantzel proves that doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible with only a compass and straightedge, as well as the full completion of the problem of constructibility of regular polygons","verdict":"Advance: Wantzel proved angle trisection impossible with ruler and compass.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Angle_trisection","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q733081"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_angle_trisection_733081"},{"id":"w_m_bius_strip_226843","name":"Möbius strip","year":1858,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Two-dimensional surface with only one side and only one edge. 1858 – August Ferdinand Möbius invents the Möbius strip,","verdict":"Advance: August Möbius's 1858 one-sided strip became an icon of topology, used in conveyor belts to spread wear.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/M%C3%B6bius_strip","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q226843"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_m_bius_strip_226843"},{"id":"w_klein_bottle_23638","name":"Klein bottle","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of non-orientable surface. 1882 – Felix Klein discovers the Klein bottle,","verdict":"Advance: Felix Klein's 1882 bottle, a one-sided closed surface, illustrates non-orientable topology.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Klein_bottle","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_klein_bottle_23638"},{"id":"w_exterior_derivative_1754547","name":"Exterior derivative","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In differential geometry, a differential operation defined in differential forms that increases the form degree by 1. 1901 – Élie Cartan develops the exterior derivative,","verdict":"Advance: Élie Cartan's 1899–1901 exterior derivative unified vector calculus theorems in differential forms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exterior_derivative","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1754547"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_exterior_derivative_1754547"},{"id":"w_brouwer_fixed_point_theorem_1144897","name":"Brouwer fixed-point theorem","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Every continuous function on a compact set has a fixed point. 1912 – Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer presents the Brouwer fixed-point theorem,","verdict":"Advance: Brouwer's 1911 fixed-point theorem underlies game theory and economic equilibrium proofs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1144897"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_brouwer_fixed_point_theorem_1144897"},{"id":"w_three_utilities_problem_32918","name":"Three utilities problem","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical problem. 1930 – Casimir Kuratowski shows that the three-cottage problem has no solution,","verdict":"Advance: Kuratowski's 1930 theorem showed K₃,₃ cannot be drawn flat, a basis of planar graph theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three_utilities_problem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q32918"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_three_utilities_problem_32918"},{"id":"w_uniform_polyhedron_2471563","name":"Uniform polyhedron","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polyhedron which has regular polygons as faces and is vertex-transitive. 1955 – H. S. M. Coxeter et al. publish the complete list of uniform polyhedron,","verdict":"Advance: Coxeter, Longuet-Higgins and Miller's 1954 list catalogued all uniform polyhedra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Uniform_polyhedron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2471563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_uniform_polyhedron_2471563"},{"id":"w_fractal_81392","name":"Fractal","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set (in mathematics) of non-integral dimension. 1975 – Benoit Mandelbrot, fractals theory,","verdict":"Advance: Benoit Mandelbrot's 1975 fractals describe coastlines, clouds and antenna designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fractal","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81392"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fractal_81392"},{"id":"w_classification_of_finite_simple_groups_1340623","name":"Classification of finite simple groups","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem. 1983 – the classification of finite simple groups, a collaborative work involving some hundred mathematicians and spanning thirty years, is completed,","verdict":"Advance: The classification of finite simple groups, announced in 1983, was completed in 2004 across tens of thousands of pages.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1340623"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_classification_of_finite_simple_groups_1340623"},{"id":"w_poincar_conjecture_203586","name":"Poincaré conjecture","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem in geometric topology that every simply connected, closed 3-manifold is homeomorphic to the 3-sphere. 1961 – Stephen Smale proves the Poincaré conjecture for all dimensions greater than or equal to 5.","verdict":"Advance: Stephen Smale proved the higher-dimensional Poincaré conjecture in 1961; Perelman settled dimension three in 2003.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Poincar%C3%A9_conjecture","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203586"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_poincar_conjecture_203586"},{"id":"w_e8_1200244","name":"E8","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"248-dimensional exceptional simple Lie group. 2007 – a team of researchers throughout North America and Europe used networks of computers to map E8 (mathematics).","verdict":"Advance: The Atlas of Lie Groups team's 2007 computation of E8 was a 60-gigabyte character table.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/E8_(mathematics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1200244"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_e8_1200244"},{"id":"w_origin_of_language_501032","name":"Origin of language","year":-1748000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First formation of language. 1.75 Mya – 150 kya: Varying estimates for the origin of language","verdict":"Advance: Spoken language, whenever it emerged between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, let humans share plans and knowledge across generations, the root technology of culture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Origin_of_language","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q501032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_origin_of_language_501032"},{"id":"w_bone_tool_814769","name":"Bone tool","year":-1498000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In archaeology, tool made by bone. 1.5 Mya: Bone tools in Africa by Homo erectus and/or Paranthropus boisei","verdict":"Advance: Shaped bone used for digging termites at Swartkrans some 1.5 million years ago shows that early hominins worked a second raw material besides stone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bone_tool","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q814769"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bone_tool_814769"},{"id":"w_raft_200433","name":"Raft (watercraft)","year":-898000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Flat structure for support or transportation over water. 900 kya – 40 kya: Rafts","verdict":"Advance: Homo erectus probably rafted to Flores some 800,000 years ago (claimed), making the raft the first watercraft and the start of human seafaring.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Raft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200433"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_raft_200433"},{"id":"w_food_storage_11702361","name":"Food storage","year":-400000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of storage that allows food to be eaten after time. 420 – 200 kya: Food storage in the form of uncracked bones saved for their marrow in Qesem cave, Israel.","verdict":"Advance: Caching food, such as uncracked deer bones saved for their marrow at Qesem Cave, let early humans plan beyond the next meal, the first step toward granaries and supply chains.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Food_storage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11702361"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_food_storage_11702361"},{"id":"w_adhesive_131790","name":"Adhesive","year":-200000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Material which is used for bonding of various materials. 200 kya: Simple glue ( adhesive ) made of one kind of material, birch tar, in Central Italy by Neanderthals.","verdict":"Advance: Birch-tar glue let early humans haft tools; early chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Adhesive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131790"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_adhesive_131790"},{"id":"w_burial_331055","name":"Burial","year":-98000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ritual act of placing a dead person into the ground. 100 kya: Funerals (in the form of burial ) in Skhul Cave, Israel","verdict":"Advance: Deliberate burial: early evidence of symbolic thought and care for the dead.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Burial","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q331055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_burial_331055"},{"id":"w_ground_stone_850776","name":"Ground stone","year":-47000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Prehistoric stone tool. 49 kya – 30 kya: Ground stone tools – fragments of an axe in Australia date to 49–45 ka, more appear in Japan closer to 30 ka, and elsewhere closer to the Neolithic.","verdict":"Advance: Edge-ground axes from Arnhem Land (c. 49,000–45,000 years ago) smoothed stone by abrasion, the technique behind Neolithic polished axes and forest clearance.","dependencies":["stone_tools"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ground_stone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q850776"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_ground_stone_850776"},{"id":"w_ochre_12353401","name":"Ochre","year":-45000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pigment. 47 kya: The oldest-known mines in the world are from Eswatini, and extracted hematite for the production of the red pigment ochre.","verdict":"Advance: Mining hematite in Eswatini's Lion Cavern some 45,000 years ago (claimed older) shows that people organized extraction for pigment, an early industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ochre","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12353401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_ochre_12353401"},{"id":"w_tally_stick_933008","name":"Tally stick","year":-42000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient memory aid device used to record and document quantities. 44 kya – 42 kya: Tally sticks (see Lebombo bone ) in Eswatini","verdict":"Advance: Notched bones as the first record-keeping: counting outside the head.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tally_stick","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q933008"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_tally_stick_933008"},{"id":"w_flute_11405","name":"Flute","year":-40000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Musical instrument of the woodwind family. 42 kya: Flute in Germany","verdict":"Advance: A 40,000-year-old bone flute; music is among humanity's oldest technologies.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flute","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11405"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_flute_11405"},{"id":"w_amputation_477415","name":"Amputation","year":-29000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Removal of a body extremity by trauma, prolonged constriction, or surgery. 31 kya: Amputation and surgery. Medicine in a meaningful sense likely predates the human-chimpanzee split, as, for example, herbal medicine has been observed in other primates.","verdict":"Advance: Prehistoric surgical amputation with survival; evidence of early care.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amputation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477415"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_amputation_477415"},{"id":"w_ceramic_45621","name":"Ceramic","year":-26000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat. 28 kya: Ceramics (direct evidence) and weaving (impressions left in the ceramics) in Moravia (Czech Republic) and Georgia. (The oldest piece of woven cloth found so far was in Çatalhöyük, Turkey and dated to about 9,000 years ago. )","verdict":"Advance: Firing clay figurines some 26,000 years ago made the first synthetic material, chemically altering earth into durable stone-like solids.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ceramic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_ceramic_45621"},{"id":"w_venus_of_doln_v_stonice_552113","name":"Venus of Dolní Věstonice","year":-22000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A ceramic statuette comes from the Upper Paleolithic. 24 kya: Oldest known ceramic sculpture","verdict":"Advance: Fired from loess clay some 26,000 years ago, she shows that people at Dolní Věstonice were firing ceramics millennia before anyone made pots, so art, not cookware, came first.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Venus_of_Doln%C3%AD_V%C4%9Bstonice","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q552113"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says -29000)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_venus_of_doln_v_stonice_552113"},{"id":"w_origin_of_the_domestic_dog_39110","name":"Origin of the domestic dog","year":-21000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process which created the domestic dog. 23 kya: Domestication of the dog in Siberia.","verdict":"Advance: Wolves tamed by Ice Age hunters some 23,000 years ago became the first domestic animal, a hunting, herding and guarding partner that predates farming.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Domestication_of_the_dog","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39110"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_origin_of_the_domestic_dog_39110"},{"id":"w_fishing_hook_205276","name":"Fishing hook","year":-20000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device for catching fish. 22 kya: Fish hook in Okinawa Island, modern day Japan.","verdict":"Advance: Shell hooks from Okinawa's Sakitari Cave (c. 23,000 years old) show that people engineered tools to harvest the sea long before agriculture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fish_hook","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_fishing_hook_205276"},{"id":"w_spindle_whorl_2474386","name":"Spindle whorl","year":-10000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Weight to increase the rotation of a spindle. 12 kya: Spindle whorl, also the oldest wheel -like tool, at Nahal Ein Gev II, Israel","verdict":"Advance: A flywheel weight on the spindle, used by about 10,000 BCE, kept fibre twisting longer and faster, the first rotary momentum device and the key to woven cloth.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spindle_whorl","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2474386"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_spindle_whorl_2474386"},{"id":"w_mudbrick_2090236","name":"Mudbrick","year":-9000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Uncooked earth used as building material. 9000 BC: Mudbricks (unfired bricks), and clay mortar in Jericho.","verdict":"Advance: Sun-dried bricks at Jericho made modular, moulded building units, the basis of walls from Mesopotamian ziggurats to adobe houses today.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mudbrick","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2090236"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_mudbrick_2090236"},{"id":"w_water_well_43483","name":"Water well","year":-8400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Excavation or structure created in the ground to access groundwater. 8400 BC: Oldest known water well in Cyprus.","verdict":"Advance: Cypriot wells some 10,000 years old tapped groundwater, so settlements no longer had to sit on rivers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Well","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43483"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_water_well_43483"},{"id":"w_pesse_canoe_1306032","name":"Pesse canoe","year":-6500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Boat constructed during the early mesolithic period. 8040–7510 BC: The Pesse canoe is the oldest boat we have found, while early human habitation of Crete and Australia make clear human seafaring goes back tens or hundreds of thousands of years. (see above)","verdict":"Advance: The Pesse canoe, a hollowed Scots pine log from about 8000 BCE, is the oldest boat found, evidence of deliberate Mesolithic watercraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pesse_canoe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1306032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pesse_canoe_1306032"},{"id":"w_sled_dog_28997","name":"Sled dog","year":-7000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Working dog. 7000 BC: Sled dog and Dog sled, in Siberia.","verdict":"Advance: Siberian hunters at Zhokhov Island bred sled dogs about 9,000 years ago, letting people live and travel across the Arctic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sled_dog","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sled_dog_28997"},{"id":"w_kiln_1724341","name":"Kiln","year":-6000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Oven that generates high temperatures. 6000 BC: Kiln in Mesopotamia (Iraq)","verdict":"Advance: Mesopotamian kilns topping 1,000°C fired durable pottery and later smelted metals, the furnace lineage of all high-temperature industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kiln","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1724341"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_kiln_1724341"},{"id":"w_proto_writing_18175774","name":"Proto-writing","year":-6000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Symbol system that cannot be classified as writing proper, but have many characteristics similar to writing. 6000 BC – 3200 BC: Proto-writing in present-day Egypt, Iraq, Romania, China, India and Pakistan.","verdict":"Advance: Vinča signs and Jiahu marks (c. 6000 BCE) recorded ownership and ritual in fixed symbols, a bridge between tally marks and true writing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Proto-writing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18175774"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_proto_writing_18175774"},{"id":"w_sea_wall_1359152","name":"Sea wall","year":-5000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Coastal defence. 5000 BC: Seawall in Tel Hareiz, near Haifa, Israel.","verdict":"Advance: The submerged Tel Hreiz seawall (c. 5000 BCE) shows Neolithic villagers building against rising seas, the first coastal engineering.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seawall","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1359152"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_sea_wall_1359152"},{"id":"w_oar_2003749","name":"Oar","year":-5000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Implement used for water-borne propulsion. 5000 BC – 4500 BC: Rowing oars in China","verdict":"Advance: Hemudu oars from China (c. 5000 BCE) multiplied paddling power and led to the triremes and galleys that dominated Mediterranean sea power for 2,000 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2003749"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_oar_2003749"},{"id":"w_lock_228039","name":"Lock","year":-4000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mechanical or electronic fastening device. 4000 BC: Oldest evidence of locks, the earliest example discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria.","verdict":"Advance: Wooden pin locks from Nineveh and Egypt secured property mechanically, the start of a 6,000-year arms race with lock-pickers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lock_and_key","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_lock_228039"},{"id":"w_domestication_of_the_horse_468739","name":"Domestication of the horse","year":-3500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of domesticating equines. 3500 BC: Probable first domestication of the horse in the Eurasian Steppes.","verdict":"Advance: Botai and Pontic–Caspian herders tamed the horse, which by 2000 BCE was pulling chariots and later moved people, trade and armies across continents for 4,000 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Domestication_of_the_horse","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q468739"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_domestication_of_the_horse_468739"},{"id":"w_seal_162919","name":"Seal","year":-3500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mark of a personal distinctive emblem intended to guarantee the authenticity of the author of a document onto which it is printed, embossed or affixed.","verdict":"Advance: Mesopotamian cylinder seals proved who authorized a document or sealed a jar, an authentication technology that leads to signatures and cryptographic keys.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seal_(emblem)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162919"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_seal_162919"},{"id":"w_sword_12791","name":"Sword","year":-3300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Bladed weapon longer than a knife or dagger. 3300 BC: The first documented swords. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, and are about 60 cm (24 in) long. Some of them are inlaid with silver.","verdict":"Compete: Arsenic-bronze blades from Arslantepe (c. 3300 BCE) became the first swords, a weapon made possible by metallurgy that drove smiths toward ever-harder alloys.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sword","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12791"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_sword_12791"},{"id":"w_latrine_5615741","name":"Latrine","year":-3200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Toilet or an even simpler facility which is used as a toilet within a sanitation system. 3200 BC: Dry Latrines in the city of Uruk, Iraq, with later dry squat Toilets, that added raised fired brick foot platforms, and pedestal toilets, all over clay pipe constructed drains.","verdict":"Advance: Dry pit latrines at sites like Skara Brae separated waste from living space, the first sanitation defence against faecal-borne disease.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Latrine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5615741"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_latrine_5615741"},{"id":"w_dice_45089","name":"Dice","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Throwable object (usually but not necessarily a cube) with multiple resting positions, used for generating random integers or outcomes. 3000 BC: Devices functionally equivalent to dice, in the form of flat two-sided throwsticks, are seen in the Egyptian game of Senet.","verdict":"Advance: Dice are randomness made portable; cubic dice from Shahr-e Sukhteh and Mohenjo-daro are some 5,000 years old, and the questions gamblers asked about them later prompted Pascal and Fermat to invent probability theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dice","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_dice_45089"},{"id":"w_reservoir_131681","name":"Reservoir","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial lake impounded using a dam or lock to store water. 3000 BC: Reservoir in Girnar, Indus Valley.","verdict":"Advance: Indus and Girnar reservoirs stored monsoon water for the dry season, letting cities survive in semi-arid land.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reservoir","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131681"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_reservoir_131681"},{"id":"w_receipt_330190","name":"Receipt","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Written acknowledgment that a person has received money or property in payment. 3000 BC: Receipt in Ancient Mesopotamia ( Iraq )","verdict":"Advance: Clay tokens and tablets acknowledging delivered grain or silver made trust auditable, a foundation of accounting and contract law.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Receipt","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q330190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_receipt_330190"},{"id":"w_rhinoplasty_840929","name":"Rhinoplasty","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surgical procedure to enhance or reconstruct a human nose. 3000 BC – 2500 BC: Rhinoplasty in Egypt.","verdict":"Advance: The Edwin Smith Papyrus treats broken noses (c. 3000–2500 BCE source), and Sushruta's forehead-flap rebuild later made rhinoplasty the oldest reconstructive surgery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rhinoplasty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840929"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rhinoplasty_840929"},{"id":"w_ruler_104555","name":"Ruler","year":-2650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Tool used to draw or measure distances along a straight line. 2650 BC: The Ruler, or Measuring rod, in the subdivided Nippur, copper rod, of the Sumerian Civilisation (modern-day Iraq).","verdict":"Advance: Graduated measuring rods from Lothal and Nippur (c. 2650 BCE) standardized length for building and trade.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ruler","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ruler_104555"},{"id":"w_planned_community_1074523","name":"Planned community","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Detailed developed land. 2600 BC: Planned city in Indus Valley.","verdict":"Advance: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were laid out on grids with covered drains around 2600 BCE, proof that urban planning predates most written law.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planned_community","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074523"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_planned_community_1074523"},{"id":"w_sanitation_of_the_indus_valley_civilizat_7418323","name":"Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sanitation of Early Indian Civilisation. 2600 BC: Public sewage and sanitation systems in Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi.","verdict":"Advance: Mohenjo-daro's covered drains and household toilets (c. 2600 BCE) were urban sanitation not matched in most cities until the 19th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7418323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_sanitation_of_the_indus_valley_civilizat_7418323"},{"id":"w_levee_105190","name":"Levee","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial ridge or wall to hold back water. 2600 BC: Levee in Indus Valley.","verdict":"Advance: Earthen embankments along the Indus and later the Nile and Yellow rivers protected floodplain farms and cities; the Netherlands still lives behind them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Levee","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_levee_105190"},{"id":"w_puppetry_588750","name":"Puppetry","year":-2500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets. 2500 BC: Puppetry in the Indus Valley.","verdict":"Advance: Puppetry turned storytelling into stagecraft with moving figures, from Indus clay toys to Javanese wayang, and it is an ancestor of animation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Puppetry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q588750"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_puppetry_588750"},{"id":"w_touchstone_1482030","name":"Touchstone","year":-2400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Small tablet of dark stone used for assaying precious metal alloys. 2400 BC: Touchstone in the Indus Valley site of Banawali (modern-day India).","verdict":"Advance: Streaking gold across dark stone and comparing the colour assayed purity in seconds, trusted by Indus and Greek traders for honest money.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1482030"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_touchstone_1482030"},{"id":"w_dictionary_23622","name":"Dictionary","year":-2300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Collection of words and their meanings. 2300 BC: Dictionary in Mesopotamia.","verdict":"Advance: Sumerian–Akkadian word lists from Ebla (c. 2300 BCE) are the first bilingual dictionaries, built to bridge languages for scribes.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dictionary","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23622"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dictionary_23622"},{"id":"w_noodle_192874","name":"Noodle","year":-2000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of staple food made from some type of unleavened dough. 2000 BC: Noodle in Lajia in China","verdict":"Advance: A 4,000-year-old bowl of millet noodles from Lajia shows dough engineered into a storable, quick-cooking staple.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noodles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192874"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_noodle_192874"},{"id":"w_akkadian_35518","name":"Distillation (Akkadian perfume tablets)","year":-1200,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Extinct Semitic language of Mesopotamia. 1200 BC: Distillation is described on Akkadian tablets documenting perfumery operations.","verdict":"Advance: Distillation recorded on Akkadian perfume tablets; early chemistry.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Akkadian_language","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35518"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_akkadian_35518"},{"id":"w_star_catalogue_850950","name":"Star catalogue","year":-1100,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Astronomical catalogue that lists stars. 1100 BC Star catalogue — Three Stars Each is the earliest known catalogue in long-running tradition of Babylonian astronomy, likely drawing on Sumerian and/or Elamite constellations.","verdict":"Advance: Babylonian \"Three Stars Each\" lists (c. 1100 BCE) were early star catalogues that organized the sky for calendars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Star_catalogue","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q850950"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_star_catalogue_850950"},{"id":"w_saddle_192249","name":"Saddle","year":-700,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Supportive structure for a rider or other load, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. 700 BC: Saddle (fringed cloths or pads used by Assyrian cavalry ).","verdict":"Advance: Scythian fringed pad saddles (c. 700 BCE) let riders stay mounted and fight, a key step toward cavalry and long-distance riding.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saddle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192249"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_saddle_192249"},{"id":"w_library_catalog_856638","name":"Library catalog","year":-650,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries. 7th century BC: The royal Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh had 30,000 clay tablets, in several languages, organized according to shape and separated by content. The first recorded example of a library catalog.","verdict":"Advance: Ashurbanipal's Nineveh library tagged tablets by subject and shelf, the first catalogue for finding stored knowledge.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Library_catalog","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q856638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_library_catalog_856638"},{"id":"w_wagonway_7959671","name":"Wagonway","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Railway using horses to pull goods wagons. Late 7th or early 6th century BC: Wagonway called Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth in Ancient Greece.","verdict":"Advance: Corinth's Diolkos stone trackway (c. 600 BCE) hauled ships across the isthmus in grooved ruts, an ancestor of railways.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wagonway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7959671"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_wagonway_7959671"},{"id":"w_cesarean_section_228036","name":"Cesarean section","year":-320,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surgical procedure in which a baby is delivered through a parent’s abdomen. Perform Caesarean section.","verdict":"Advance: Surgical delivery, practised to save infants after maternal death, became survivable for mothers only with 19th-century antisepsis; today it saves millions in obstructed births.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caesarean_section","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228036"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cesarean_section_228036"},{"id":"w_deed_705914","name":"Deed","year":-500,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of legal instrument in common law. Before 5th century BC: Loan deeds in Upanishadic India.","verdict":"Advance: Written deeds made land and debt transfers provable without witnesses, and enforceable title became the basis of credit.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deed","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q705914"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_deed_705914"},{"id":"w_trebuchet_19776","name":"Trebuchet","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Type of siege engine weapon which uses a swinging arm to throw a heavy missile at the enemy. 4th century BC: Traction trebuchet in Ancient China.","verdict":"Compete: China's traction trebuchet, a Mohist-era throwing machine, gave way by the 12th century to counterweight versions that could breach stone walls.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trebuchet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19776"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_trebuchet_19776"},{"id":"w_cogwheel_143873","name":"Cogwheel","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rotating wheel having teeth which mesh with another cogwheel or toothed part, used to transmit torque, convert rotation to translation or rarely other purposes. 4th century BC: Gears in Ancient China.","verdict":"Advance: Meshing toothed wheels, described by Aristotle's school and built into the Antikythera mechanism, became the universal means of transmitting and converting power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gear","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143873"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_cogwheel_143873"},{"id":"w_reed_pen_1349162","name":"Reed pen","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of writing implement. 4th century BC: Reed pens, utilising a split nib, were used to write with ink on Papyrus in Egypt.","verdict":"Advance: Split-nib reed pens gave Egyptian and Greek scribes controlled ink flow, the template for quills and steel nibs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reed_pen","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1349162"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_reed_pen_1349162"},{"id":"w_horseshoe_192130","name":"Horseshoe","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Item designed to protect a horse's hoof from wear. 4th century BC: Nailed horseshoe, with 4 bronze shoes found in an Etruscan tomb.","verdict":"Advance: Nailed iron horseshoes protected hooves on hard roads, extending the working life of horses for farming, trade and cavalry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horseshoe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192130"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_horseshoe_192130"},{"id":"w_horse_mill_252189","name":"Horse mill","year":-375,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of mill. 375 BC – 350 BC: Animal-driven rotary mill in Carthage.","verdict":"Advance: Carthaginian donkey-driven rotary mills (c. 350 BCE) replaced hand grinding, harnessing animal power for continuous industrial work.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horse_mill","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q252189"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_horse_mill_252189"},{"id":"w_corporation_167037","name":"Corporation","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Legal entity incorporated through a legislative or registration process. By the late 4th century BC: Corporations in either the Maurya Empire of India or in Ancient Rome ( Collegium ).","verdict":"Advance: Legally separate bodies that outlive their members, from Roman collegia and Indian śreṇī guilds to chartered companies, let capital be pooled for centuries-long projects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Corporation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167037"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_corporation_167037"},{"id":"w_formal_system_649732","name":"Formal system","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Any well-defined system of abstract thought based on the model of mathematics. Late 4th century BC: Formal systems by Pāṇini in India, possibly during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.","verdict":"Advance: Aristotle's syllogistic and Euclid's axioms made reasoning a rule-governed system, a line that ends in Hilbert, Gödel and the theory behind computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Formal_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q649732"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_formal_system_649732"},{"id":"w_analog_computer_63759","name":"Analog computer","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Machine for calculating dynamic behavior by analog electronics or mechanic analogies. 3rd century BC: Analog computers in the Hellenistic world (see e.g. the Antikythera mechanism ), possibly in Rhodes.","verdict":"Advance: Mechanical analog computation, from the Antikythera mechanism to differential analyzers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Analog_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_analog_computer_63759"},{"id":"w_cam_495933","name":"Cam","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rotating or sliding piece, with eccentric or variegated profile, in a mechanical linkage. 3rd century BC: Cam during the Hellenistic period, used in water-driven automata.","verdict":"Advance: Cams turn rotation into precisely timed pushes, the logic of Hellenistic automata, camshafts and programmable machines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_%28mechanism%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q495933"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_cam_495933"},{"id":"w_arch_bridge_158438","name":"Arch bridge","year":-50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Bridge type characterized by its supporting arches. 1st century BC: Segmental arch bridge (e.g. Pont-Saint-Martin or Ponte San Lorenzo ) in Italy, Roman Republic","verdict":"Advance: Roman segmental arch bridges spanned wide rivers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arch_bridge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_arch_bridge_158438"},{"id":"w_newspaper_11032","name":"Newspaper","year":1605,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Scheduled publication containing news of events, articles, features, editorials, and advertising; online, in print, or (usually) both. 1st century BC: News bulletin during the reign of Julius Caesar. A paper form, i.e. the earliest newspaper, later appeared during the late Han dynasty in the form of the Dibao.","verdict":"Advance: Printed periodicals spread news widely; the first mass medium.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Newspaper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_newspaper_11032"},{"id":"w_arch_dam_890545","name":"Arch dam","year":-50,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Solid dam made of concrete that is curved upstream in plan. 1st century BC: Arch dam ( Glanum Dam ) in Gallia Narbonensis, Roman Republic (see also List of Roman dams )","verdict":"Advance: Roman arch dam; curved concrete holds back water.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arch_dam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q890545"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_arch_dam_890545"},{"id":"w_trip_hammer_2121955","name":"Trip hammer","year":-40,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Powered hammer. Before 40 BC: Trip hammer in China","verdict":"Advance: Han Chinese water-powered trip hammers pounded grain and ore by 40 BCE, freeing labour long before European mills did.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trip_hammer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2121955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_trip_hammer_2121955"},{"id":"w_glass_blowing_12185286","name":"Glass blowing","year":-37,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Technique of shaping and decorating hot and cold glass to produce hollow glass objects, flat glass and crown glass. 37 BC – 14 BC: Glass blowing developed in Jerusalem.","verdict":"Advance: Syro-Phoenician glassblowers (c. 50 BCE) inflated molten glass into vessels, turning glass from a luxury into an everyday Roman container.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Glassblowing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12185286"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_glass_blowing_12185286"},{"id":"w_water_turbine_644997","name":"Water turbine","year":250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Type of turbine. Late 3rd century – Early 4th century: Water turbine in the Roman Empire in modern-day Tunisia.","verdict":"Advance: Roman horizontal mill wheels at Chemtou and Testour in Tunisia (c. 300) prefigured turbine design, which became the core of hydropower.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Water_turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_water_turbine_644997"},{"id":"w_simple_suspension_bridge_3916505","name":"Simple suspension bridge","year":350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of bridge. 4th century: Simple suspension bridge, independently invented in Pre-Columbian South America, and the Hindu Kush range, of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.","verdict":"Advance: Inca rope bridges such as Q'eswachaka spanned Andean gorges, rewoven annually to this day.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Simple_suspension_bridge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3916505"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_simple_suspension_bridge_3916505"},{"id":"w_fishing_reel_1572168","name":"Fishing reel","year":350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device attached to a fishing rod used in winding and unwinding fishing line. 4th century: Fishing reel in Ancient China: In literary records, the earliest evidence of the fishing reel comes from a 4th-century AD work entitled Lives of Famous Immortals.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese anglers by the 4th century CE wound their line on a reel, so they could cast farther and land bigger fish with less effort.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fishing_reel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1572168"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_fishing_reel_1572168"},{"id":"w_oil_well_587682","name":"Oil well","year":347,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Well drilled in the ground or the seabed to recover hydrocarbons. 347: Oil Wells and Borehole drilling in China. Such wells could reach depths of up to 240 m (790 ft).","verdict":"Advance: Chinese cable-tool rigs drilled for oil and gas in 347 CE, about 1,500 years before Drake's Pennsylvania well.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oil_well","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q587682"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_oil_well_587682"},{"id":"w_paddle_steamer_1121471","name":"Paddle steamer","year":350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Steamship or riverboat powered by a steam engine that drives paddle wheels. 4th century – 5th century: Paddle wheel boat (in De rebus bellicis ) in Roman Empire","verdict":"Advance: Ox-driven paddle-wheel boats described in the late Roman De Rebus Bellicis and Chinese texts prefigured steam paddle ships.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Paddle_steamer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1121471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_paddle_steamer_1121471"},{"id":"w_spinning_wheel_58966","name":"Spinning wheel","year":500,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device for spinning thread, yarn, or silk from natural or synthetic fibers. After 500: Charkha (spinning wheel/cotton gin) invented in India (probably during the Vakataka dynasty of Maharashtra, India ), between 500 and 1000 A.D.","verdict":"Advance: India's charkha (c. 500–1000 CE) multiplied a spinner's output several times and later became Gandhi's emblem of self-reliance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spinning_wheel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58966"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_spinning_wheel_58966"},{"id":"w_incendiary_device_897842","name":"Incendiary device","year":672,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Bomb designed to start fires. 672: Greek fire in Constantinople, Byzantine Empire: Greek fire, an incendiary weapon likely based on petroleum or naphtha, is invented by Kallinikos, a Lebanese Greek refugee from Baalbek, as described by Theophanes.","verdict":"Compete: Kallinikos's Greek fire, which burned on water, saved Constantinople from Arab fleets in 672–678, and its recipe was so well guarded it is still lost.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Incendiary_device","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q897842"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_incendiary_device_897842"},{"id":"w_playing_card_47883","name":"Playing card","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Card used as one of a set for playing card games. 9th century: Playing card in Tang dynasty China","verdict":"Advance: Tang-dynasty cards were among the first uses of woodblock printing for leisure; they spread to Europe by the 1370s, and the deck became a common tool for teaching probability.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Playing_card","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47883"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_playing_card_47883"},{"id":"w_bessemer_process_334055","name":"Bessemer process","year":1856,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Steel production method. 11th century: Early versions of the Bessemer process are developed in China.","verdict":"Advance: Henry Bessemer's 1856 air-blast converter made steel cheap by blowing out carbon (precedents claimed in Song China), building railways and skyscrapers.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bessemer_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bessemer_process_334055"},{"id":"w_inuit_snow_goggles_72751","name":"Inuit snow goggles","year":1250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Eye protection of the Inuit people. 13th century: Earliest documented snow goggles, a type of sunglasses, made of flattened walrus or caribou ivory are used by the Inuit peoples in the arctic regions of North America.","verdict":"Advance: Inuit slit goggles of bone or wood cut glare to prevent snow blindness, effective eye protection centuries before sunglasses.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Snow_goggles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q72751"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_inuit_snow_goggles_72751"},{"id":"w_land_mine_178795","name":"Land mine","year":1277,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Explosive weapon, concealed under or on the ground.","verdict":"Compete: Song troops buried gunpowder mines against Mongol invaders in 1277; modern landmines kill thousands of civilians a year, which prompted the 1997 Ottawa ban.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Land_mine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178795"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_land_mine_178795"},{"id":"w_canvas_4259259","name":"Canvas","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Extremely heavy-duty plain-woven fabric. 14th century: Painting Canvas was first used in Italy.","verdict":"Advance: Painting on stretched canvas, adopted in Venice in the 15th century, freed art from walls and panels, so large works could be rolled, shipped and sold.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Canvas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4259259"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_canvas_4259259"},{"id":"w_jacob_s_staff_843239","name":"Jacob's staff","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Calibrated wooden rod with sliding crosspiece used for measuring the altitude of celestial bodies or the height of distant objects. 14th century: Jacob's staff described by Levi ben Gerson","verdict":"Advance: Levi ben Gershon's Jacob's staff (c. 1340) measured star angles at sea, aiding navigators.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jacob's_staff","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q843239"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_jacob_s_staff_843239"},{"id":"w_naval_mine_189929","name":"Naval mine","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Explosive weapon for use in seas and waterways, triggered by the target's approach. 14th century: Naval mine in Ming dynasty Mentioned in the Huolongjing military manuscript written by Jiao Yu (fl.","verdict":"Compete: Ming-era sea mines, described in the Huolongjing, used incense-stick timers, an idea that later sank more WWII ships than battleships did.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Naval_mine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189929"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_naval_mine_189929"},{"id":"w_bidri_ware_1931229","name":"Bidri ware","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decorative metal objects of India ornamented with a type of inlay work. 14th century: Bidriware in the Bahmani Sultanate in India.","verdict":"Advance: Bidar artisans inlaid silver into blackened zinc alloy, a distinctive Deccan metalcraft still practised under geographical-indication protection.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bidriware","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1931229"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bidri_ware_1931229"},{"id":"w_coil_spring_3175877","name":"Coil spring","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Spring type formed into a helix shape. Early 15th century: Coil spring in Europe","verdict":"Advance: Helical springs stored and returned energy compactly, in clock mechanisms, locks and eventually vehicle suspension.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coil_spring","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3175877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_coil_spring_3175877"},{"id":"w_mainspring_11060227","name":"Mainspring","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Spiral torsion spring of metal ribbon used as a power source in mechanical watches, some clocks, and other clockwork mechanisms. 15th century: Mainspring in Europe","verdict":"Advance: The coiled mainspring freed clocks from hanging weights, allowing the portable watch and the 16th-century pocket timepiece.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mainspring","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11060227"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1410)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_mainspring_11060227"},{"id":"w_brace_2662870","name":"Brace","year":1420,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of hand drill. 1420s: Brace in Flanders, Holy Roman Empire","verdict":"Advance: The carpenter's brace (Flanders, 1420s) added a crank to drilling, multiplying torque for holes in timber framing and shipbuilding.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brace_(tool)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2662870"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_brace_2662870"},{"id":"w_arquebus_168289","name":"Arquebus","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Long gun of the 15th century. Mid 15th century: The Arquebus (also spelled Harquebus) is invented, possibly in Spain.","verdict":"Compete: The arquebus put firearms in infantry hands.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arquebus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168289"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_arquebus_168289"},{"id":"w_liquation_2142270","name":"Liquation","year":1453,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Metallurgic method. 1453: First large scale use of Liquation for separating silver from silver-bearing copper at Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire.","verdict":"Advance: Separating silver from copper by melting it out with lead (Saigerprozess) financed central Europe's mining boom.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Liquation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2142270"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_liquation_2142270"},{"id":"w_mariner_s_astrolabe_1138708","name":"Mariner's astrolabe","year":1480,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nautical navigational instrument. 1480s: Mariner's astrolabe in Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa","verdict":"Advance: The Portuguese mariner's astrolabe, used from the 1480s, measured solar altitude on a rolling deck, so Dias could fix latitude around Africa.","dependencies":["astrolabe_islamic"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mariner's_astrolabe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1138708"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mariner_s_astrolabe_1138708"},{"id":"w_chintz_1074462","name":"Chintz","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Glazed plain-woven fabric, usually printed with bright floral designs. 16th century: Chintz or printed clothing in Golconda, India","verdict":"Advance: Indian block-printed calicoes with fast colours were so popular in Europe that England and France banned imports to protect domestic weavers.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chintz","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074462"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_chintz_1074462"},{"id":"w_hookah_105397","name":"Hookah","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Type of water pipe used for smoking. 16th century: Hookah by Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I","verdict":"Drift: A water pipe that spread tobacco smoking through the Ottoman and Mughal worlds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hookah","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105397"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_hookah_105397"},{"id":"w_rifling_228268","name":"Rifling","year":1540,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Helical groovings in the internal (bore) surface of a firearm barrel. 1540: Rifling is first used in firearms, after being invented in 1498","verdict":"Compete: Spiral grooves that spin a bullet, documented in German Augsburg barrels (c. 1500), multiplied accuracy, though fast-loading rifles waited for the Minié ball (1849).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rifling","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228268"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rifling_228268"},{"id":"w_mercator_projection_309372","name":"Mercator projection","year":1569,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cylindrical map projection invented by Gerardus Mercator in 1569. 1569: Mercator Projection map created by Gerardus Mercator","verdict":"Advance: Mercator's 1569 projection kept compass bearings straight, making it the standard sea chart.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mercator_projection","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309372"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mercator_projection_309372"},{"id":"w_stocking_frame_16933138","name":"Stocking frame","year":1589,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Mechanical knitting machine. 1589: Stocking frame: Invented by William Lee.","verdict":"Advance: William Lee's 1589 stocking frame knitted mechanically some 100 times faster than by hand, the first textile machine.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stocking_frame","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16933138"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_stocking_frame_16933138"},{"id":"w_backstaff_3298443","name":"Backstaff","year":1594,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Navigational instrument. 1594: Backstaff: Invented by Captain John Davis","verdict":"Advance: Davis's backstaff improved ocean navigation.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Backstaff","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3298443"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_backstaff_3298443"},{"id":"w_flintlock_5403171","name":"Flintlock","year":1610,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Firearm with flint-striking ignition. 1630: first use of the flintlock","verdict":"Compete: Marin le Bourgeoys's flint-on-steel lock (c. 1610) made firearms cheaper and more reliable than the matchlock, and armed armies for two centuries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flintlock","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5403171"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_flintlock_5403171"},{"id":"w_vacuum_pump_745837","name":"Vacuum pump","year":1650,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Equipment producing low air pressure. 1650: Vacuum pump: Invented by Otto von Guericke.","verdict":"Advance: Guericke's 1650 vacuum pump and his Magdeburg hemispheres proved the force of air pressure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vacuum_pump","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745837"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vacuum_pump_745837"},{"id":"w_pendulum_clock_41751","name":"Pendulum clock","year":1656,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Timekeeping device. 1656: Pendulum clock: Invented by Christiaan Huygens. It was first conceptualized in 1637 by Galileo Galilei but he was unable to create a working model.","verdict":"Advance: Huygens' 1656 pendulum clock cut timekeeping error from about 15 minutes a day to about 15 seconds, enabling precise astronomy and physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pendulum_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41751"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_pendulum_clock_41751"},{"id":"w_reflecting_telescope_35221","name":"Reflecting telescope","year":1668,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Telescope design that collects and focuses light with a combination of mirrors. 1668: First functional reflecting telescope constructed by Isaac Newton.","verdict":"Advance: Newton's 1668 reflecting telescope avoided colour fringes; large mirrors now power JWST and Keck.","dependencies":["w_optical_telescope_35273"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reflecting_telescope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35221"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_reflecting_telescope_35221"},{"id":"w_pressure_cooker_271997","name":"Pressure cooker","year":1679,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Utensil for cooking food under high pressure steam. 1679: Pressure-cooker: Invented by Denis Papin.","verdict":"Advance: Denis Papin's 1679 pressure vessel cooked faster at higher boiling points, and his safety valve led directly to steam engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_cooker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q271997"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_pressure_cooker_271997"},{"id":"w_lead_chamber_process_883646","name":"Lead chamber process","year":1746,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Industrial process historically used to produce sulfuric acid. 1746: John Roebuck invents the lead chamber process, mass producing sulfuric acid for manufacturing","verdict":"Advance: John Roebuck's 1746 lead chambers made sulphuric acid by the ton, dropping its price and powering the bleaching and dye industries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lead_chamber_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q883646"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_lead_chamber_process_883646"},{"id":"w_spinning_jenny_49015","name":"Spinning jenny","year":1764,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Multi-spool spinning frame. 1764: James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny, revolutionizing textile production during the Industrial Revolution","verdict":"Advance: James Hargreaves' spinning jenny (1764) let one worker spin eight or more threads at once, sparking the textile revolution.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spinning_jenny","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49015"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_spinning_jenny_49015"},{"id":"w_boring_3210331","name":"Boring","year":1774,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled. 1774: John Wilkinson invents his boring machine, considered by some to be the first machine tool","verdict":"Advance: John Wilkinson's 1774 boring mill cut true cylinders for cannon and then for Watt's engines, without which the steam age would have leaked away.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boring_(manufacturing)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3210331"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_boring_3210331"},{"id":"w_air_compressor_978234","name":"Air compressor","year":1776,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Devicecompresor. 1776: John Wilkinson invents a mechanical air compressor that would become the prototype for all later mechanical compressors","verdict":"Advance: Compressed air powered mines, tools and later industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Air_compressor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q978234"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1799)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_air_compressor_978234"},{"id":"w_steamboat_178193","name":"Steamboat","year":1783,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of steam powered vessel; smaller than a steamship; boat in which the primary method of marine propulsion is steam power. 1783: Claude de Jouffroy builds the first steamboat","verdict":"Advance: Jouffroy d'Abbans' 1783 Pyroscaphe steamed up the Saône, a first step toward steam navigation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steamboat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178193"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_steamboat_178193"},{"id":"w_parachute_482816","name":"Parachute","year":1783,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere. 1783: Louis-Sébastien Lenormand invents and uses the first modern parachute","verdict":"Advance: Louis-Sébastien Lenormand's 1783 jump from Montpellier Observatory named and proved the parachute.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parachute","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q482816"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_parachute_482816"},{"id":"w_threshing_machine_506839","name":"Threshing machine","year":1786,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Agricultural machine. 1786: Andrew Meikle invents the threshing machine","verdict":"Advance: Andrew Meikle's 1786 thresher mechanized the hardest harvest work, with one machine doing the work of dozens of flail-wielders.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Threshing_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506839"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_threshing_machine_506839"},{"id":"w_hydraulic_press_841217","name":"Hydraulic press","year":1795,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Machine press using a hydraulic cylinder to generate a compressive force. 1795: Joseph Bramah invents the hydraulic press","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Bramah's 1795 hydraulic press multiplied force through fluid, powering forging, baling and later hydraulic machinery of all kinds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydraulic_press","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841217"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_hydraulic_press_841217"},{"id":"w_paper_machine_1931541","name":"Paper machine","year":1799,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Machine used to manufacture paper products. 1799: The first paper machine is invented by Louis-Nicolas Robert","verdict":"Advance: Louis-Nicolas Robert's 1799 continuous paper machine, developed by the Fourdriniers, made paper cheap enough for mass newspapers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Paper_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1931541"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_paper_machine_1931541"},{"id":"w_general_anaesthetic_2755101","name":"General anaesthetic","year":1804,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Agent that induces a degree of analgesia. 1804: Hanaoka Seishū creates tsūsensan, the first modern general anesthetic.","verdict":"Advance: Hanaoka Seishū's tsūsensan herbal anaesthesia let him remove a breast tumour in 1804, decades before Western ether.","dependencies":["w_anesthetic_4990531"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_anaesthetic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2755101"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_general_anaesthetic_2755101"},{"id":"w_safety_lamp_371150","name":"Safety lamp","year":1812,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any of several types of lamp that provides illumination in coal mines. 1812: William Reid Clanny pioneered the invention of the safety lamp which he improved in later years. Safety lamps based on Clanny's improved design were used until the adoption of electric lamps.","verdict":"Advance: William Clanny's 1813 sealed lamp was the first attempt to light coal mines without igniting firedamp.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Safety_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q371150"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_safety_lamp_371150"},{"id":"w_planer_929470","name":"Planer","year":1814,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Metalworking machine tool. 1814: James Fox invents the modern planing machine, though Matthew Murray of Leeds and Richard Roberts of Manchester have also been credited at times with its invention.","verdict":"Advance: James Fox's metal planer (1814) machined large flat surfaces accurately, a prerequisite for precise locomotives and engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planer_(metalworking)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q929470"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_planer_929470"},{"id":"w_stirling_engine_186212","name":"Stirling engine","year":1816,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Engine powered by a source of heat applied externally to it. 1816: Robert Stirling invents the Stirling engine.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Stirling's 1816 external-combustion engine ran quietly on any heat source and now powers cryocoolers and submarine propulsion.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stirling_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186212"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_stirling_engine_186212"},{"id":"w_dandy_horse_1255515","name":"Dandy horse","year":1817,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Two-wheeled human-powered vehicle often regarded as the predecessor of the bicycle. 1817: Baron Karl von Drais invents the dandy horse, an early velocipede and precursor to the modern bicycle.","verdict":"Advance: Karl Drais's 1817 Laufmaschine was the first two-wheeled vehicle, possibly prompted by horse deaths after Tambora's \"year without a summer\".","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dandy_horse","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1255515"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_dandy_horse_1255515"},{"id":"w_tunnelling_shield_2016868","name":"Tunnelling shield","year":1818,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Protective structure used during the excavation of tunnels. 1818: Marc Isambard Brunel invents the tunnelling shield.","verdict":"Advance: Marc Brunel's 1818 shield let miners dig safely under the Thames, the method behind every soft-ground tunnel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tunnelling_shield","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2016868"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tunnelling_shield_2016868"},{"id":"w_shaper_2097438","name":"Shaper","year":1836,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. 1822: Thomas Blanchard invents the pattern-tracing lathe (actually more like a shaper ). The lathe can copy symmetrical shapes and is used for making gun stocks, and later, ax handles.","verdict":"Advance: James Nasmyth's shaper (1836) planed small flat surfaces mechanically, one of the machine tools that made standard parts possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shaper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2097438"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_shaper_2097438"},{"id":"w_heliography_1414342","name":"Heliography","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First permanent photographic process. 1822: Nicéphore Niépce invents Heliography, the first photographic process.","verdict":"Advance: Nicéphore Niépce's 1822 bitumen heliographs fixed images by light, leading to the 1826–27 View from the Window at Le Gras.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heliography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1414342"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_heliography_1414342"},{"id":"w_mechanical_computer_6591619","name":"Mechanical computer","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer only built from mechanical components such as levers and gears. 1822: Charles Babbage, considered the \" father of the computer \", begins building the first programmable mechanical computer.","verdict":"Advance: Babbage's Analytical Engine design (1837) had memory, a mill and punched-card programs, a general-purpose computer a century early.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mechanical_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6591619"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mechanical_computer_6591619"},{"id":"w_d_bereiner_s_lamp_902872","name":"Döbereiner's lamp","year":1823,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Lighter invented in 1823 by J. W. Döbereiner. 1823: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner invents the first lighter.","verdict":"Advance: Johann Döbereiner's 1823 lighter ignited hydrogen on a platinum catalyst, the first lighter and an early demonstration of catalysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/D%C3%B6bereiner's_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902872"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_d_bereiner_s_lamp_902872"},{"id":"w_bolt_action_870863","name":"Bolt action","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Type of firearm action. 1824: Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse invents the bolt-action rifle.","verdict":"Compete: Dreyse's needle gun (patented 1836, with a bolt for breech loading) let Prussian infantry fire lying down, which proved decisive in the 1866 war against Austria.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bolt_action","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q870863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_bolt_action_870863"},{"id":"w_gas_stove_1667685","name":"Gas stove","year":1826,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Stove that is fueled by combustible gas. 1826: James Sharp invents and goes on to manufacture the first practical gas stove.","verdict":"Advance: James Sharp's 1826 gas cooker gave controllable heat in kitchens and spread with town gas networks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas_stove","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1667685"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gas_stove_1667685"},{"id":"w_hot_blast_5910687","name":"Hot blast","year":1828,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Preheating of air blown into a blast furnace. 1828: James Beaumont Neilson develops the hot blast process.","verdict":"Advance: James Neilson's 1828 hot blast cut furnace coal use by two-thirds, letting Scotland's iron industry boom.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hot_blast","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5910687"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hot_blast_5910687"},{"id":"w_reaping_machine_1367947","name":"Reaping machine","year":1828,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Horse-drawn or tractor-mounted farm tool. 1828: Patrick Bell invents the reaping machine.","verdict":"Advance: Patrick Bell's 1828 reaper and Cyrus McCormick's 1831 machine cut grain mechanically, with one machine doing the work of five to ten labourers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reaper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1367947"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_reaping_machine_1367947"},{"id":"w_corrugated_galvanised_iron_1432769","name":"Corrugated galvanised iron","year":1829,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of metal building material. 1829: Henry Robinson Palmer is awarded a patent for corrugated galvanised iron.","verdict":"Advance: Henry Palmer's 1829 corrugated galvanized sheet made light, rustproof roofing, from colonial towns to Antarctic huts.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Corrugated_galvanised_iron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1432769"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_corrugated_galvanised_iron_1432769"},{"id":"w_lawn_mower_260521","name":"Lawn mower","year":1830,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Machine that uses one or more revolving blades to cut a lawn to an even height.. 1830: Edwin Budding invents the lawn mower.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin Budding's 1830 reel mower turned a textile shearing machine into the tool of lawns and sports fields.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lawn_mower","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q260521"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_lawn_mower_260521"},{"id":"w_electrotyping_6456484","name":"Electrotyping","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical method for forming metal parts that exactly reproduce a model. 1838: Moritz von Jacobi invents electrotyping.","verdict":"Advance: Moritz von Jacobi's 1838 electrotyping copied objects in metal exactly, used for printing plates and replicas.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrotyping","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6456484"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electrotyping_6456484"},{"id":"w_steam_shovel_7605386","name":"Steam shovel","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Steam-powered excavation machine. 1839: William Otis invents the steam shovel.","verdict":"Advance: William Otis's 1839 steam shovel dug railway cuts and later the Panama Canal.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steam_shovel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7605386"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_steam_shovel_7605386"},{"id":"w_steam_hammer_19767","name":"Steam hammer","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Power hammer. 1839: James Nasmyth invents the steam hammer.","verdict":"Advance: James Nasmyth's 1839 steam hammer forged huge shafts and armour plate, enabling large steamships.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steam_hammer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19767"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_steam_hammer_19767"},{"id":"w_vulcanization_188631","name":"Vulcanization","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Chemical process for converting natural rubber or related polymers into more durable materials. 1839: Charles Goodyear invents vulcanized rubber.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Goodyear's 1839 sulphur cure turned sticky rubber into stable elastic, enabling tyres, seals and hoses.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vulcanization","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188631"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_vulcanization_188631"},{"id":"w_blueprint_422321","name":"Blueprint","year":1840,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Document reproduction created by using a contact print process on light-sensitive sheets. 1840: John Herschel invents the blueprint.","verdict":"Advance: John Herschel's 1842 cyanotype copied technical drawings cheaply, and blueprints standardized engineering documentation for a century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blueprint","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422321"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1872)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_blueprint_422321"},{"id":"w_fuel_cell_180253","name":"Fuel cell","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electricity by oxidizing a fuel. 1801 – Humphry Davy discovers the concept of the fuel cell.","verdict":"Advance: William Grove's 1839 \"gas voltaic battery\" combined hydrogen and oxygen to make power, and fuel cells later flew Apollo missions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuel_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fuel_cell_180253"},{"id":"w_superphosphate_899094","name":"Superphosphate","year":1842,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1842: John Bennet Lawes invents superphosphate, the first man-made fertilizer.","verdict":"Advance: John Lawes' 1842 acid-treated phosphate was the first manufactured fertilizer, which with nitrogen and potash fuelled modern agriculture.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Superphosphate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_superphosphate_899094"},{"id":"w_hypodermic_needle_1165892","name":"Hypodermic needle","year":1853,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device to inject substances into the circulatory system or extract fluids from the body. 1844: Francis Rynd invents the hypodermic needle.","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Wood and Charles Pravaz's 1853 hollow needle with syringe made injection precise, and it later delivered vaccines and insulin.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hypodermic_needle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1165892"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hypodermic_needle_1165892"},{"id":"w_nitrous_oxide_905750","name":"Nitrous oxide","year":1844,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1774 – Joseph Priestley discovers nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride and oxygen","verdict":"Advance: Horace Wells used nitrous oxide for painless tooth extraction in 1844, one of the first gases to make surgery bearable.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nitrous_oxide","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905750"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_nitrous_oxide_905750"},{"id":"w_portland_cement_844123","name":"Portland cement","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Binder used as basic ingredient of concrete. 1824 – Portland cement patent issued to Joseph Aspdin","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Aspdin's 1824 patent began Portland cement, the binder in concrete, now the most used human-made material.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844123"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_portland_cement_844123"},{"id":"w_tunnel_boring_machine_130617","name":"Tunnel boring machine","year":1846,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Machine used to excavate circular tunnels through a variety of soil and rock strata. 1846: Henri-Joseph Maus invents the tunnel boring machine.","verdict":"Advance: Henri Maus's 1846 tunnel-boring machine for the Fréjus tunnel prefigured the TBMs that dug the Channel Tunnel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tunnel_boring_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130617"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tunnel_boring_machine_130617"},{"id":"w_sewing_machine_49013","name":"Sewing machine","year":1846,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A machine used to sew fabric and materials together with thread. 1846: Elias Howe received a patent for a sewing machine, the model for the Singer Sewing Machine","verdict":"Advance: Elias Howe's 1846 lockstitch patent and Isaac Singer's improvements mechanized sewing, cutting the time needed to make a shirt roughly fivefold.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sewing_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1790)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_sewing_machine_49013"},{"id":"w_nitroglycerin_162867","name":"Nitroglycerin","year":1847,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1847: Ascanio Sobrero invents nitroglycerin, the first explosive made that was stronger than black powder.","verdict":"Advance: Ascanio Sobrero's 1847 nitroglycerin was too dangerous to use until Nobel's dynamite (1867) tamed it; it now also treats angina.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nitroglycerin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162867"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_nitroglycerin_162867"},{"id":"w_jackhammer_19766","name":"Jackhammer","year":1848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pneumatic tool. 1848: Jonathan J. Couch invents the pneumatic drill.","verdict":"Advance: Jonathan Couch's 1849 steam percussion drill led to pneumatic rock drills that bored the Alpine railway tunnels.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jackhammer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19766"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1893)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_jackhammer_19766"},{"id":"w_pin_tumbler_lock_2281304","name":"Pin tumbler lock","year":1848,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lock mechanism. 1848: Linus Yale Sr. invents the first modern pin tumbler lock.","verdict":"Advance: Linus Yale's pin-tumbler lock (1848, refined by his son in 1861) became the world's standard cheap, secure lock.","dependencies":["w_lock_228039"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pin_tumbler_lock","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2281304"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_pin_tumbler_lock_2281304"},{"id":"w_repeating_rifle_751162","name":"Repeating rifle","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Rifle capable of repeated discharges from a single barrel between ammunition reloads. 1849: Walter Hunt invents the first repeating rifle to use metallic cartridges (of his own design) and a spring-fed magazine.","verdict":"Compete: Walter Hunt's 1849 Volition repeater led to the Henry and Winchester rifles, which multiplied an infantryman's firepower.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Repeating_rifle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751162"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_repeating_rifle_751162"},{"id":"w_francis_turbine_217817","name":"Francis turbine","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of water turbine. 1849: James B. Francis invents the Francis turbine.","verdict":"Advance: James Francis's 1849 mixed-flow turbine is now the most common hydropower turbine, producing about 60% of hydroelectricity.","dependencies":["w_water_turbine_644997"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Francis_turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217817"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_francis_turbine_217817"},{"id":"w_safety_pin_840333","name":"Safety pin","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pointed fastener with a locking mechanism, often used to secure clothing and cloth diapers. 1849: Walter Hunt invents the safety pin.","verdict":"Advance: Hunt sold his 1849 safety pin, which guarded its own point, for $400: a simple solution in bent wire.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Safety_pin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840333"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_safety_pin_840333"},{"id":"w_hydraulic_accumulator_4668679","name":"Hydraulic accumulator","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Reservoir to store and stabilise fluid pressure. 1850: William Armstrong invents the hydraulic accumulator.","verdict":"Advance: William Armstrong's 1850 weighted accumulator stored hydraulic pressure, powering dock cranes and London's Tower Bridge.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydraulic_accumulator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4668679"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_hydraulic_accumulator_4668679"},{"id":"w_chemical_vapor_deposition_505668","name":"Chemical vapor deposition","year":1852,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Process used to make thin films for semiconductors or surface coating. 1852: Robert Bunsen is the first to use a chemical vapor deposition technique.","verdict":"Advance: Bunsen's 1852 vapour deposition of films became a core process in chipmaking, solar cells and wear coatings.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chemical_vapor_deposition","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505668"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_chemical_vapor_deposition_505668"},{"id":"w_airship_133585","name":"Airship","year":1852,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Powered lighter-than-air aircraft. 1852: Henri Giffard becomes the first person to make a manned, controlled and powered flight using a dirigible.","verdict":"Advance: First powered, steerable flight; Giffard's steam airship.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Airship","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133585"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_airship_133585"},{"id":"w_color_photography_166509","name":"Color photography","year":1855,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method that uses media capable of representing colors. 1855: James Clerk Maxwell invents the first practical method for color photography, whether chemical or electronic.","verdict":"Advance: Maxwell's 1855 three-colour theory, demonstrated with Sutton's tartan ribbon in 1861, became the principle behind every colour display.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Color_photography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_color_photography_166509"},{"id":"w_celluloid_146612","name":"Celluloid","year":1856,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Thermoplastic consisting of nitrocellulose plasticized with camphor. 1856: Alexander Parkes invents parkesine, also known as celluloid, the first man-made plastic.","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Parkes's 1856 Parkesine, refined as celluloid, was the first plastic, replacing ivory and leading to film stock.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Celluloid","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146612"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_celluloid_146612"},{"id":"w_mauveine_421898","name":"Mauveine","year":1856,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Synthetic dye. 1856: William Henry Perkin invents mauveine, the first synthetic dye.","verdict":"Advance: William Perkin's 1856 mauve began the synthetic dye industry, the seed of Germany's chemical giants and modern pharmaceuticals.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mauveine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q421898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_mauveine_421898"},{"id":"w_geissler_tube_537792","name":"Geissler tube","year":1857,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gas-discharge lamp. 1857: Heinrich Geissler invents the Geissler tube.","verdict":"Advance: Heinrich Geissler's 1857 glowing gas tubes led to neon signs, cathode rays and the discovery of the electron.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Geissler_tube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q537792"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_geissler_tube_537792"},{"id":"w_phonautograph_959646","name":"Phonautograph","year":1857,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Earliest known device for recording sound, transcribing sound waves onto paper or glass. 1857: The phonautograph, the earliest known device for recording sound, is patented and invented by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.","verdict":"Advance: Édouard-Léon Scott's 1857 phonautograph traced sound waves on soot-blackened paper, the first sound recording, finally played back in 2008.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phonautograph","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959646"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1850)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_phonautograph_959646"},{"id":"w_lead_acid_battery_337724","name":"Lead–acid battery","year":1859,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rechargeable battery type often used in cars. 1859: Gaston Planté invents the lead acid battery, the first rechargeable battery.","verdict":"Advance: Gaston Planté's 1859 lead–acid cell was the first rechargeable battery and still starts most cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q337724"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_lead_acid_battery_337724"},{"id":"w_carbon_fibers_5860","name":"Carbon fibers","year":1860,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Material fibers about 5–10 μm in diameter composed of carbon. 1860: Joseph Swan produces carbon fibers.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Swan's 1860 carbonized fibres for lamps led, a century later, to high-strength carbon fibre for aircraft and rockets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carbon_fibers","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5860"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1958)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_carbon_fibers_5860"},{"id":"w_barbed_wire_192065","name":"Barbed wire","year":1867,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of steel fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the strand(s). 1867: Lucien B. Smith invents barbed wire.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Glidden's 1874 barbed wire fenced the American plains cheaply, ending open range and later shaping trench warfare.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Barbed_wire","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192065"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_barbed_wire_192065"},{"id":"w_polyvinyl_chloride_146368","name":"Polyvinyl chloride","year":1872,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Synthetic plastic polymer - A thermoplastic resin produced by the polymerization of vinyl chloride gas.. 1872: Polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as vinyl, is synthesized by German chemist Eugen Baumann.","verdict":"Advance: Eugen Baumann's 1872 PVC, commercialized in the 1920s, became the pipes, cables and window frames of modern construction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polyvinyl_chloride","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146368"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polyvinyl_chloride_146368"},{"id":"w_stainless_steel_172587","name":"Stainless steel","year":1820,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Chromium-containing steel alloy resistant to corrosion. 1820: Michael Faraday and James Stoddart discover alloying iron with chromium produces a stainless steel resistant to oxidising elements ( rust ).","verdict":"Advance: Faraday and Stodart's chromium-steel experiments (1820) foreshadowed stainless steel, which Brearley perfected in 1913.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stainless_steel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172587"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1872)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_stainless_steel_172587"},{"id":"w_rotary_kiln_1256630","name":"Rotary kiln","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of clay kiln. 1873: Frederick Ransome invents the rotary kiln.","verdict":"Advance: Frederick Ransome's 1885 rotary kiln made cement continuously, cutting cost and making concrete the universal building material.","dependencies":["w_kiln_1724341"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rotary_kiln","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1256630"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_rotary_kiln_1256630"},{"id":"w_crookes_radiometer_1334758","name":"Crookes radiometer","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device that rotates under influence of light. 1873: William Crookes, a chemist, invents the Crookes radiometer as the by-product of some chemical research.","verdict":"Advance: Crookes's 1873 radiometer spins in light due to thermal effects, a popular science toy.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crookes_radiometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1334758"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_crookes_radiometer_1334758"},{"id":"w_metal_detector_211959","name":"Metal detector","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic instrument which detects the presence of metal nearby. 1874: Gustave Trouvé invents the first metal detector.","verdict":"Advance: Gustave Trouvé's 1874 metal detector located bullets in patients, a forerunner of mine clearing and airport security.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metal_detector","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211959"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_metal_detector_211959"},{"id":"w_zeppelin_191413","name":"Zeppelin","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rigid airship type. 1874: Ferdinand von Zeppelin invents the Zeppelin rigid airship.","verdict":"Advance: Count Zeppelin's rigid airships (patented 1895, flown 1900) offered the first powered intercontinental passenger flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zeppelin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191413"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1900)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_zeppelin_191413"},{"id":"w_four_stroke_engine_191801","name":"Four-stroke engine","year":1876,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Internal combustion engine type. 1876: Nicolaus August Otto invents the four-stroke cycle.","verdict":"Advance: Nicolaus Otto's 1876 four-stroke cycle became the standard piston engine in cars, motorcycles and small aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Four-stroke_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191801"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_four_stroke_engine_191801"},{"id":"w_rebreather_1428339","name":"Rebreather","year":1878,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Apparatus to recycle breathing gas. 1878: Henry Fleuss is granted a patent for the first practical rebreather.","verdict":"Advance: Henry Fleuss's 1878 oxygen rebreather allowed long work in toxic air and underwater, the ancestor of mine-rescue and military diving sets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rebreather","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1428339"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rebreather_1428339"},{"id":"w_pelton_wheel_745900","name":"Pelton wheel","year":1878,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of turbine. 1878: Lester Allan Pelton invents the Pelton wheel, a type of water turbine.","verdict":"Advance: Lester Pelton's 1878 split-bucket wheel captured high-head water efficiently, powering California mines and now Alpine hydro plants.","dependencies":["w_water_turbine_644997"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pelton_wheel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745900"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_pelton_wheel_745900"},{"id":"w_recoil_operation_2203443","name":"Recoil operation","year":1884,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Type of firearm action. 1884: Hiram Maxim invents the recoil-operated Maxim gun, ushering in the age of semi- and fully automatic firearms.","verdict":"Compete: Hiram Maxim's 1884 gun used recoil to reload itself, firing about 600 rounds a minute, and it changed warfare by WWI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Recoil_operation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2203443"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_recoil_operation_2203443"},{"id":"w_poudre_b_2213613","name":"Poudre B","year":1884,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"First practical smokeless gunpowder. 1884: Paul Vieille invents Poudre B, the first smokeless powder for firearms.","verdict":"Compete: Paul Vieille's 1884 Poudre B, the first practical smokeless powder, tripled range and ended the battlefield smoke clouds of black powder.","dependencies":["ammonia_explosives"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Poudre_B","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2213613"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_poudre_b_2213613"},{"id":"w_safety_bicycle_2281298","name":"Safety bicycle","year":1868,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Archaic term for pedal-driven bicycles with equal-size front and rear wheels, geartrain and tires (\"common\" bicycle). 1868 – Safety bicycle invented.","verdict":"Advance: The chain-driven safety bicycle with equal wheels (Starley's Rover, 1885) made cycling safe and popular, helping women's mobility.","dependencies":["w_bicycle_11442"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Safety_bicycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2281298"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_safety_bicycle_2281298"},{"id":"w_zinc_carbon_battery_28765","name":"Zinc–carbon battery","year":1886,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of zinc–manganese dioxide battery with acidic electrolyte. 1886: Carl Gassner invents the zinc–carbon battery, the first dry cell battery, making portable electronics practical.","verdict":"Advance: Carl Gassner's 1886 dry cell made batteries portable and spill-free, the basis of flashlights and radios.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28765"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_zinc_carbon_battery_28765"},{"id":"w_hall_h_roult_process_898555","name":"Hall–Héroult process","year":1886,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Aluminium smelting process. 1886: Charles Martin Hall and independently Paul Héroult invent the Hall–Héroult process for economically producing aluminum in 1886.","verdict":"Advance: Hall and Héroult's 1886 electrolysis cut aluminium's price by more than 90% and turned it into a metal for planes and cans.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898555"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hall_h_roult_process_898555"},{"id":"w_bayer_process_248670","name":"Bayer process","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of refining bauxite to produce alumina. 1887: Carl Josef Bayer invents the Bayer process for the production of alumina.","verdict":"Advance: Carl Bayer's 1887 caustic refining of bauxite yields the alumina fed to every aluminium smelter today.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bayer_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q248670"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bayer_process_248670"},{"id":"w_wind_turbine_49833","name":"Wind turbine","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that converts wind energy into electrical energy. 1887: James Blyth invents the first wind turbine used for generating electricity.","verdict":"Advance: James Blyth's 1887 windmill in Scotland lit his cottage, the first electricity-generating wind turbine.","dependencies":["w_electrical_generator_131502"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wind_turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49833"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_wind_turbine_49833"},{"id":"w_gold_cyanidation_775155","name":"Gold cyanidation","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hydrometallurgical technique for extracting gold from low-grade ore. 1887: John Stewart MacArthur, working in collaboration with brothers Dr. Robert and Dr. William Forrest, develops the process of gold cyanidation.","verdict":"Advance: MacArthur and the Forrest brothers' 1887 cyanide leaching extracted gold from low-grade ore, rescuing the Witwatersrand mines.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gold_cyanidation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q775155"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_gold_cyanidation_775155"},{"id":"w_kinetoscope_669700","name":"Kinetoscope","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Motion picture exhibition device. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson develops the \" kinetoscopic \" motion picture camera while working for Thomas Edison.","verdict":"Advance: Dickson and Edison's 1891 peephole Kinetoscope showed the first commercial motion pictures, spurring the Lumières' projection.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kinetoscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q669700"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kinetoscope_669700"},{"id":"w_tire_169545","name":"Tire","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ring-shaped covering that fits around a wheel's rim. 1888: The first practical pneumatic tire was made by Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop, the patent was from 1847 by Robert William Thomson","verdict":"Advance: John Boyd Dunlop's 1888 pneumatic tyre cushioned bicycles and cars, making high-speed road travel comfortable.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tire","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169545"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tire_169545"},{"id":"w_cardboard_box_1395006","name":"Cardboard box","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Box fabricated from cardboard. 1890: Robert Gair invents the pre-cut cardboard box.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Gair's 1890 pre-cut folding carton made cheap shipping boxes, the backbone of retail and e-commerce logistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cardboard_box","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1395006"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_cardboard_box_1395006"},{"id":"w_zipper_101761","name":"Zipper","year":1891,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device for fastening the edges of an opening of fabric or other flexible material. 1891: Whitcomb Judson invents the zipper.","verdict":"Advance: Whitcomb Judson's 1893 clasp locker evolved into Gideon Sundback's 1913 zipper, a fastener used billions of times daily.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zipper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101761"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_zipper_101761"},{"id":"w_electric_stove_1211746","name":"Electric stove","year":1892,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stove with an integrated electrical heating device to cook and bake. 1892: Thomas Ahearn invents the electric oven.","verdict":"Advance: Thomas Ahearn's 1892 electric range cooked a whole meal electrically, leading to modern kitchen appliances.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_stove","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1211746"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electric_stove_1211746"},{"id":"w_diesel_engine_174174","name":"Diesel engine","year":1892,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Internal combustion engine with quality rotational frequency governing, internal mixture formation, lean air-fuel-ratio, diffusion flame and compression ignition. 1892 – Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine ( U.S. patent 608,845 ).","verdict":"Advance: Rudolf Diesel's 1893 compression-ignition engine achieved high efficiency, powering ships, trucks and trains worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diesel_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174174"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_diesel_engine_174174"},{"id":"w_rubber_glove_1039512","name":"Rubber glove","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Glove made out of rubber. 1893: William Stewart Halsted, invents the rubber glove for his wife Caroline Hampton as he noticed her hands were affected by the daily surgeries she had performed.","verdict":"Advance: Halsted's 1890 rubber gloves, made for his nurse's dermatitis, became the standard barrier against surgical infection.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rubber_glove","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1039512"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_rubber_glove_1039512"},{"id":"w_surgical_mask_10282403","name":"Surgical mask","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Oro-nasal cover worn by health professionals to reduce spread of airborne pathogens.","verdict":"Advance: Jan Mikulicz's 1897 gauze mask cut wound infection from surgeons' breath, now a standard barrier in operating rooms and epidemics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Surgical_mask","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10282403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_surgical_mask_10282403"},{"id":"w_polyethylene_143429","name":"Polyethylene","year":1898,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Most common thermoplastic polymer. 1898: Hans von Pechmann synthesizes polyethylene, now the most common plastic in the world.","verdict":"Advance: Hans von Pechmann's 1898 polyethylene, produced commercially by ICI in 1939 for radar insulation, became the world's most common plastic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polyethylene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143429"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1933)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polyethylene_143429"},{"id":"w_nickel_cadmium_battery_898377","name":"Nickel–cadmium battery","year":1899,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of rechargeable battery. 1899: Waldemar Jungner invents the rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) as well as the nickel-iron electric storage battery (NiFe) and the rechargeable alkaline silver-cadmium battery (AgCd)","verdict":"Advance: Waldemar Jungner's 1899 NiCd battery gave rugged, rechargeable power for aircraft, tools and early portables.","dependencies":["w_rechargeable_battery_187510"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898377"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nickel_cadmium_battery_898377"},{"id":"w_vacuum_cleaner_101674","name":"Vacuum cleaner","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device that uses air to suck up dirt and other substances. 1901: The first motorized cleaner using suction, a powered \" vacuum cleaner \", is patented independently by Hubert Cecil Booth and David T. Kenney.","verdict":"Advance: Hubert Cecil Booth's 1901 powered suction cleaner removed dust rather than spreading it, reducing household allergens and housework.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vacuum_cleaner","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101674"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_vacuum_cleaner_101674"},{"id":"w_laminated_glass_2086307","name":"Laminated glass","year":1903,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Safety glass that holds together when shattered, consisting of multple layers of glass held in place by interlayers. 1903: Édouard Bénédictus invents laminated glass.","verdict":"Advance: Édouard Bénédictus's 1903 laminated glass held together on breaking, becoming windscreens that saved countless lives.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laminated_glass","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2086307"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_laminated_glass_2086307"},{"id":"w_bakelite_146578","name":"Bakelite","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Early plastic. 1907: Leo Baekeland invents bakelite, the first plastic made from synthetic components.","verdict":"Advance: Leo Baekeland's 1907 phenol-formaldehyde resin was the first fully synthetic plastic, insulating early electrical goods.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bakelite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146578"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_bakelite_146578"},{"id":"w_ramjet_60602","name":"Ramjet","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Jet engine that uses the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air. 1907: The tuyères thermopropulsives after 1945 ( Maurice Roy (fr) ) known as the statoreacteur a combustion subsonique (the ramjet ) – R. Lorin","verdict":"Advance: René Lorin's 1913 ramjet concept became the basis for supersonic missiles and the X-43 scramjet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ramjet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60602"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ramjet_60602"},{"id":"w_cellophane_193841","name":"Cellophane","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1908: Cellophane is invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger.","verdict":"Advance: Jacques Brandenberger's 1908 transparent cellulose film became the first clear food wrap.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cellophane","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193841"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_cellophane_193841"},{"id":"w_cloud_chamber_214634","name":"Cloud chamber","year":1911,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scientific device. 1911: The cloud chamber, the first particle detector, is invented by Charles Thomson Rees Wilson.","verdict":"Advance: C. T. R. Wilson's cloud chamber (1911) made particle tracks visible, revealing the positron in 1932.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cloud_chamber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214634"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cloud_chamber_214634"},{"id":"w_kaplan_turbine_213947","name":"Kaplan turbine","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. 1913: The Kaplan turbine is invented by Viktor Kaplan.","verdict":"Advance: Viktor Kaplan's 1913 adjustable-blade turbine made low-head rivers profitable for hydropower.","dependencies":["w_water_turbine_644997"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kaplan_turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q213947"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_kaplan_turbine_213947"},{"id":"w_martensitic_stainless_steel_4704771","name":"Martensitic stainless steel","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"One of the 5 crystalline structures of stainless steel. 1915: Harry Brearley invents a process to create Martensitic stainless steel, initially labelled Rustless Steel, later marketed as Staybrite, and AISI Type 420.","verdict":"Advance: Harry Brearley's 1913 martensitic stainless steel resisted rust and held an edge, transforming cutlery and surgical tools.","dependencies":["w_stainless_steel_172587"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Martensitic_stainless_steel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4704771"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_martensitic_stainless_steel_4704771"},{"id":"w_three_point_hitch_1258035","name":"Three-point hitch","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Widely used type of hitch for attaching ploughs and other implements to an agricultural or industrial tractor. 1926: Harry Ferguson, patents the Three-point hitch equipment linkage system for tractors.","verdict":"Advance: Harry Ferguson's 1926 three-point hitch let tractors control implements hydraulically, transforming farm productivity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three-point_hitch","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1258035"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_three_point_hitch_1258035"},{"id":"w_mechanical_television_1638417","name":"Mechanical television","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A television system that relies on a mechanical scanning device, to both scan and reproduce the video signal. 1926: John Logie Baird demonstrates the world's first live working television system.","verdict":"Advance: Baird's spinning Nipkow-disc television (1926) showed the first recognizable faces, the start of TV.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mechanical_television","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1638417"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1920)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mechanical_television_1638417"},{"id":"w_ball_screw_1791122","name":"Ball screw","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Low friction linear actuator. 1929: The ball screw is invented by Rudolph G. Boehm.","verdict":"Advance: Rudolph Boehm's 1929 ball screw converted rotation to linear motion with low friction, the precision drive of CNC machines and aircraft actuators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ball_screw","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1791122"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1889)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_ball_screw_1791122"},{"id":"w_scramjet_60591","name":"Scramjet","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of jet engine. 1930: The Supersonic combusting ramjet — Frank Whittle. [ citation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Supersonic combustion ramjets, theorized from the 1950s and flown on the X-43, promise Mach 5+ air-breathing flight.","dependencies":["w_ramjet_60602"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Scramjet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60591"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_scramjet_60591"},{"id":"w_phase_contrast_microscopy_898815","name":"Phase contrast microscopy","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Optical microscopy technique. 1930: The Phase-contrast microscopy is invented by Frits Zernike.","verdict":"Advance: Frits Zernike's 1930s phase contrast microscope made living cells visible, earning the 1953 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phase-contrast_microscopy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898815"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_phase_contrast_microscopy_898815"},{"id":"w_z1_230810","name":"Z1","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Motor driven mechanical computer built by Konrad Zuse in the 1930's. 1938: Z1, built by Konrad Zuse, is the first freely programmable computer in the world.","verdict":"Advance: Konrad Zuse's Z1 (1938) was a binary, programmable mechanical computer built in his parents' living room.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Z1_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230810"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_z1_230810"},{"id":"w_nuclear_fission_11429","name":"Nuclear fission","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Nuclear reaction splitting the nucleus of an atom into multiple parts. 1904 – Frederick Soddy first proposes a bomb powered by nuclear fission to the Royal Engineers .","verdict":"Advance: Hahn, Strassmann, Meitner and Frisch (1938–39); the gateway to nuclear power and the bomb.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_fission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11429"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nuclear_fission_11429"},{"id":"w_isotope_of_plutonium_2348563","name":"Isotope of plutonium","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1940: Pu-239 isotope (isotope of plutonium ) a form of matter existing with the capacity for use as a destructive element (because the isotope has an exponentially increasing spontaneous fissile decay ) within nuclear devices — Glenn Sea…","verdict":"Advance: Seaborg's team identified plutonium-239 in 1941, used for nuclear power and weapons.","dependencies":["w_isotope_25276"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Isotopes_of_plutonium","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2348563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_isotope_of_plutonium_2348563"},{"id":"w_cavity_magnetron_194154","name":"Cavity magnetron","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Device for generating microwaves. 1940: John Randall and Harry Boot would develop the high power, microwave generating, cavity magnetron, later applied to commercial Radar and Microwave oven appliances.","verdict":"Compete: The cavity magnetron made compact radar possible; later, the microwave oven.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cavity_magnetron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194154"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_cavity_magnetron_194154"},{"id":"w_polyester_188245","name":"Polyester","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Category of polymers. 1941: Polyester is invented by John Rex Whinfield and James Dickson.","verdict":"Advance: Whinfield and Dickson's 1941 polyester became the most produced synthetic fibre, in clothing and bottles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polyester","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188245"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1926)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polyester_188245"},{"id":"w_nuclear_reactor_80877","name":"Nuclear reactor","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. 1942: Enrico Fermi developed the nuclear reactor and created the first controlled nuclear chain reaction","verdict":"Advance: Fermi's Chicago Pile-1 achieved the first controlled chain reaction on 2 December 1942, opening nuclear power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_reactor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nuclear_reactor_80877"},{"id":"w_microwave_oven_127956","name":"Microwave oven","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Kitchen cooking appliance. 1945: Percy Spencer, while employed at Raytheon, would patent a magnetron based microwave oven.","verdict":"Advance: Percy Spencer's 1945 radar-magnetron oven heated food in minutes and is now in most kitchens.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microwave_oven","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127956"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_microwave_oven_127956"},{"id":"w_radiocarbon_dating_173412","name":"Radiocarbon dating","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Technique based on carbon-14 decay to determine the age of organic materials. 1945: Willard Libby began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published his paper in 1946, a second paper in Science in 1947.","verdict":"Advance: Willard Libby's 1949 radiocarbon dating revolutionized archaeology, earning the 1960 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radiocarbon_dating","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173412"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_radiocarbon_dating_173412"},{"id":"w_ejection_seat_623544","name":"Ejection seat","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System designed to rescue the crew of an aircraft in an emergency. 1946: James Martin invents the ejector seat, inspired by the death of his friend and test pilot Captain Valentine Baker in an aeroplane crash in 1942.","verdict":"Advance: James Martin's 1946 ejection seat has saved more than 7,600 aircrew lives.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ejection_seat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623544"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ejection_seat_623544"},{"id":"w_atomic_clock_227467","name":"Atomic clock","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Extremely accurate reference clock used as a standard for timekeeping. 1948: The first atomic clock is developed at the National Bureau of Standards.","verdict":"Advance: Atomic timekeeping; the basis of GPS and modern standards.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atomic_clock","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q227467"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1955)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atomic_clock_227467"},{"id":"w_basic_oxygen_steelmaking_1501437","name":"Basic oxygen steelmaking","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Oxygen blowing with dolomite charging in steel furnace. 1948: Basic oxygen steelmaking is developed by Robert Durrer. The majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in 2000, it accounted for 60% of global steel output.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Durrer's oxygen converter, commercialized at Linz in 1952, made steel in minutes and replaced open-hearth furnaces.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1501437"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_basic_oxygen_steelmaking_1501437"},{"id":"w_float_glass_1429077","name":"Float glass","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Material; type of glass. 1952: The float glass process is developed by Alastair Pilkington.","verdict":"Advance: Pilkington's float process (1952, commercial 1959) floated molten glass on tin for perfectly flat panes, cutting the cost of windows worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Float_glass","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1429077"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_float_glass_1429077"},{"id":"w_video_tape_recorder_732942","name":"Video tape recorder","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tape recorder designed to record and playback video and audio material on magnetic tape. 1953: The first video tape recorder, a helical scan recorder, is invented by Norikazu Sawazaki.","verdict":"Advance: Ampex's 1956 VR-1000 quadruplex recorder let TV shows be recorded and replayed, ending live-only broadcasting.","dependencies":["w_tape_recorder_213777"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Video_tape_recorder","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q732942"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_video_tape_recorder_732942"},{"id":"w_hovercraft_185757","name":"Hovercraft","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Vehicle capable of movement within ground effect at speed or stationary over all surfaces without contact. The Luftkissengleitboot Hovercraft – First hovering vehicle was created by Dagobert Müller. It could only travel on water.","verdict":"Advance: Christopher Cockerell's 1955 hovercraft rode an air cushion across water and land, crossing the Channel in 1959.","dependencies":["w_amphibious_vehicle_474698"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hovercraft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185757"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hovercraft_185757"},{"id":"w_intermodal_container_187956","name":"Intermodal container","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Standardized large, reusable steel box used for transporting freight. 1955: The intermodal container is developed by Malcom McLean.","verdict":"Advance: Standard steel boxes slashed shipping costs and built the global economy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intermodal_container","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187956"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1934)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_intermodal_container_187956"},{"id":"w_logic_theorist_4391896","name":"Logic Theorist","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer program. 1956: The Logic Theorist computer program, the first \"artificial intelligence program\", was written and invented by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon, and Cliff Shaw.","verdict":"Advance: Newell, Shaw and Simon's Logic Theorist (1956) proved theorems from Principia Mathematica, the first AI program.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Logic_Theorist","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4391896"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_logic_theorist_4391896"},{"id":"w_powered_exoskeleton_938523","name":"Powered exoskeleton","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Wearable machine meant to enhance a person's strength and mobility. 1960: First robotic exoskeleton","verdict":"Advance: GE and the US military's Hardiman (1965) tried to multiply arm strength 25-fold; it never worked whole, but it started the exoskeleton field.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeleton_%28human%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q938523"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_powered_exoskeleton_938523"},{"id":"w_touchscreen_165970","name":"Touchscreen","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Input/output device usually layered on the top of an electronic visual display. 1967: E. A. Johnson of the Royal Radar Establishment developed the capacitive touch display or touchscreen","verdict":"Advance: E. A. Johnson's 1965–67 capacitive touchscreen for air-traffic control prefigured every smartphone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Touchscreen","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165970"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_touchscreen_165970"},{"id":"w_graphical_user_interface_782543","name":"Graphical user interface","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"User interface allowing interaction through graphical icons and visual indicators. 1973: The first commercial graphical user interface is introduced in 1973 on the Xerox Alto. The modern GUI is later popularized by the Xerox Star and Apple Lisa.","verdict":"Advance: Xerox's Alto (1973) introduced windows, icons and the mouse, influencing Apple and Microsoft.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graphical_user_interface","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q782543"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_graphical_user_interface_782543"},{"id":"w_rubik_s_cube_47043","name":"Rubik's Cube","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"3-D combination puzzle with many different permutations. 1974: The Rubik's cube is invented by Ernő Rubik which went on to be the best selling puzzle ever.","verdict":"Advance: Ernő Rubik's 1974 cube has 43 quintillion states; it became a hands-on teaching tool for group theory and speedcubing algorithms.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47043"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_rubik_s_cube_47043"},{"id":"w_dna_sequencing_380546","name":"DNA sequencing","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Technique in molecular biology. 1977: Dr Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger invented a new DNA sequencing method for which they won the Nobel Prize.","verdict":"Advance: Sanger's chain-termination method (1977) made reading DNA routine, and it powered the Human Genome Project.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DNA_sequencing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380546","https://grokipedia.com/page/Sanger_sequencing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181940"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dna_sequencing_380546"},{"id":"w_autonomous_car_741490","name":"Autonomous car","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Automobile capable of traveling without human input. 1977: The first self-driving car that did not rely upon rails or wires under the road is designed by the Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.","verdict":"Advance: Early self-driving car research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-driving_car","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_autonomous_car_741490"},{"id":"w_microvision_1475303","name":"Microvision","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First handheld game console that used interchangeable cartridges. 1979: The first handheld game console with interchangeable game cartridges, the Microvision is released.","verdict":"Advance: Milton Bradley's 1979 Microvision was the first handheld console with swappable cartridges, a forerunner of the Game Boy.","dependencies":["w_handheld_game_console_941818"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microvision","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1475303"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_microvision_1475303"},{"id":"w_restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism_857299","name":"Restriction fragment length polymorphism","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method. 1980: Scientists Mark Skolnick, Ron Davis, Ray White, and David Botstein published their findings on a gene mapping tool using Restriction Fragment-length Polymorphisms (RFLP), that would have applications to identify heritable disorder…","verdict":"Advance: Botstein and colleagues' 1980 RFLP mapping used natural DNA variation as markers, allowing the hunt for disease genes such as Huntington's.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857299"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism_857299"},{"id":"w_reusable_spacecraft_96401666","name":"Reusable spacecraft","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Spacecraft designed to be reused. 1981: The first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle undergoes test flights ahead of full operation in 1982","verdict":"Advance: The Space Shuttle (1981) was the first reusable crewed spaceplane; Falcon 9 landings later made reuse economical.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reusable_spacecraft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96401666"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_reusable_spacecraft_96401666"},{"id":"w_portable_media_player_10872571","name":"Portable media player","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Portable device capable of storing and playing digital media such as audio, images, and video files. 1981: Kane Kramer develops the credit card-sized, IXI digital media player.","verdict":"Advance: Sony's 1979 Walkman, after Kane Kramer's 1979 digital design, made music portable and personal.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Portable_media_player","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10872571"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_portable_media_player_10872571"},{"id":"w_laptop_3962","name":"Laptop","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Personal computer that is foldable and portable. 1982: The first laptop computer is launched, the 8/16-bit Epson HX-20.","verdict":"Advance: Epson's HX-20 (1981) was an early laptop; Grid Compass (1982) introduced the clamshell form.","dependencies":["w_portable_computer_1820120"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laptop","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_laptop_3962"},{"id":"w_stereolithography_1022471","name":"Stereolithography","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of 3D printing that uses photopolymerization. 1983: Stereolithography is invented by Chuck Hull.","verdict":"Advance: Chuck Hull's 1983 laser-cured resin printing began additive manufacturing, now used for prototypes, implants and rocket parts.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stereolithography","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1022471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_stereolithography_1022471"},{"id":"w_dna_profiling_476697","name":"DNA profiling","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Technique used to identify an individual on the basis of their DNA characteristics. 1984: DNA profiling is pioneered by Alec Jeffreys.","verdict":"Advance: Alec Jeffreys' 1984 genetic fingerprint identified individuals from DNA; it first solved a murder in 1987 and has freed many wrongly convicted people.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DNA_profiling","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476697"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dna_profiling_476697"},{"id":"w_solid_state_drive_487343","name":"Solid-state drive","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Semiconductor-based data storage medium, often used for auxiliary memory to store data. 1991: The first commercial flash-based solid-state drive is launched by SunDisk.","verdict":"Advance: SunDisk's 1991 20 MB flash drive began solid-state storage, which replaced hard disks in laptops.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solid-state_drive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q487343"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_solid_state_drive_487343"},{"id":"w_sim_card_230110","name":"SIM card","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Smartcard for cellular devices containing authentication information necessary for connecting to the cell network. 1991: The first sim card is developed by Munich smart-card maker Giesecke & Devrient","verdict":"Advance: Giesecke+Devrient's 1991 SIM card separated identity from handset, letting users swap phones and roam, the GSM keystone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SIM_card","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230110"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sim_card_230110"},{"id":"w_dvd_5294","name":"DVD","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Optical disc format for the storage and playback of digital video and other digital data. 1995: DVD is an optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions.","verdict":"Advance: The 1995 DVD put a full film on a 4.7 GB disc and became the fastest-adopted consumer electronics format.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DVD","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5294"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dvd_5294"},{"id":"w_digital_video_recorder_865042","name":"Digital video recorder","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electronic device that records video in a digital format to an electronic storage medium. 1999: The first digital video recorder (DVR), the TiVo, is launched","verdict":"Advance: TiVo and ReplayTV (1999) recorded TV to hard disk, letting viewers pause live TV and skip ads.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Digital_video_recorder","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q865042"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_digital_video_recorder_865042"},{"id":"w_i_mode_284305","name":"I-mode","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mobile Internet service (1999–2026) popular in Japan during the 2000s. 1999: NTT DoCoMo launches i-mode, the first integrated Online App store for mobile phones","verdict":"Advance: NTT DoCoMo's 1999 i-mode put email and the web on phones in Japan, with 40 million users before smartphones.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/I-mode","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_i_mode_284305"},{"id":"w_contraceptive_patch_1295013","name":"Contraceptive patch","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Transdermal patch applied to prevent pregnancy. 2001: The Food and Drug Administration approved the first contraceptive patch","verdict":"Advance: Ortho Evra (approved 2001) delivered weekly contraceptive hormones through the skin, a convenience gain with a monitored clot risk.","dependencies":["w_birth_control_122224","w_transdermal_patch_1145270"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Contraceptive_patch","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1295013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_contraceptive_patch_1295013"},{"id":"w_web_application_189210","name":"Web application","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Application that uses a web browser as a client. 2002: Programmer Jonathon Abrams launches Friendster, establishing the modern template for web-based social networking","verdict":"Advance: Web applications such as Gmail (2004) moved software into the browser, making the web an application platform.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Web_application","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189210"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_web_application_189210"},{"id":"w_podcast_20899","name":"Podcast","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of digital broadcasting method. 2004: First podcast, invented by Adam Curry and Dave Winer","verdict":"Advance: Adam Curry and Dave Winer's RSS enclosures (2004) let anyone publish audio on demand, creating independent radio.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Podcast","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20899"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_podcast_20899"},{"id":"w_quantum_machine_2122192","name":"Quantum machine","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Human-made device whose collective motion follows the laws of quantum mechanics. 2009: The first quantum machine was created by Aaron D. O'Connell","verdict":"Advance: Andrew Cleland's 2010 resonator was the first human-made object placed in a quantum state.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122192"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quantum_machine_2122192"},{"id":"w_pepper_17190252","name":"Pepper","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Model of robot. 2014: Introduction of Pepper, the first commercial humanoid robot","verdict":"Advance: SoftBank's Pepper (2014) brought emotion-reading humanoids into shops and homes; about 27,000 were built before production paused in 2021.","dependencies":["wabot"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pepper_(robot)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17190252"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_pepper_17190252"},{"id":"w_ibm_q_system_one_60626630","name":"IBM Q System One","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"World's first-ever circuit-based commercial quantum computer. 2019: IBM launches IBM Q System One, its first integrated quantum computing system for commercial use.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's Q System One (2019) was the first integrated commercial quantum computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_Q_System_One","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_historic_inventions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60626630"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_q_system_one_60626630"},{"id":"w_safety_valve_730458","name":"Safety valve","year":1679,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Valve that acts as a fail-safe. 1679 – Denis Papin – safety valve.","verdict":"Advance: Papin's weighted safety valve let pressure vessels vent before bursting, a component on every boiler since.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Safety_valve","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q730458"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_safety_valve_730458"},{"id":"w_latent_heat_207721","name":"Latent heat","year":1761,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Released or absorbed energy during a constant-temperature process. 1750: Joseph Black: describes latent heat.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Black's latent heat (c. 1761) explained why ice melts slowly, helping Watt improve the steam engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Latent_heat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207721"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_latent_heat_207721"},{"id":"w_phlogiston_theory_120999319","name":"Phlogiston theory","year":1694,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Superseded scientific theory about combustion. 1694–1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl names Becher's combustible earth as phlogiston and develops the theory","verdict":"Advance: Stahl's phlogiston theory organized 18th-century chemistry before Lavoisier's oxygen overturned it.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phlogiston_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120999319"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_phlogiston_theory_120999319"},{"id":"w_water_gas_shift_reaction_1466348","name":"Water-gas shift reaction","year":1780,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical reaction. 1780 – Felice Fontana discovers the water-gas shift reaction.","verdict":"Advance: Felice Fontana's 1780 shift reaction, CO plus steam to hydrogen, is now the workhorse of hydrogen and ammonia production.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Water%E2%80%93gas_shift_reaction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1466348"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_water_gas_shift_reaction_1466348"},{"id":"w_gas_balloon_537420","name":"Gas balloon","year":1783,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Balloon filled with gas less dense than air. 1783 – Jacques Charles makes the first flight with his hydrogen-filled gas balloon or Charlière.","verdict":"Advance: Jacques Charles's 1783 hydrogen balloon flew 36 km, beginning gas ballooning and scientific high-altitude flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas_balloon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q537420"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_gas_balloon_537420"},{"id":"w_rozi_re_balloon_1465703","name":"Rozière balloon","year":1785,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hybrid balloon using both hydrogen/helium and hot air for lift. 1785 – Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier builds the hybrid Rozière balloon.","verdict":"Advance: Pilâtre de Rozier died in 1785 testing a hybrid gas/hot-air balloon whose descendants now fly round-the-world.","dependencies":["w_gas_balloon_537420"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rozi%C3%A8re_balloon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1465703"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rozi_re_balloon_1465703"},{"id":"w_charles_s_law_193523","name":"Charles's law","year":1787,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Charles's law is an experimental gas law which describes how gases tend to expand when heated.. 1787 – Charles's law (gas law, relating volume and temperature).","verdict":"Advance: Jacques Charles's 1787 gas law, published by Gay-Lussac, relates volume and temperature.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Charles's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193523"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_charles_s_law_193523"},{"id":"w_theodolite_181517","name":"Theodolite","year":1809,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surveying instrument that measures azimuth and elevation between points. 1809 – Thomas Forster observes with a theodolite the drift of small free pilot balloons filled with \"inflammable gas\".","verdict":"Advance: Theodolites, from Ramsden's great theodolite (1787), mapped Britain and India.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Theodolite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181517"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1923)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_theodolite_181517"},{"id":"w_gay_lussac_s_law_202151","name":"Gay-Lussac's law","year":1809,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relationship between pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.. 1809 – Gay-Lussac's law, a gas law relating temperature and pressure.","verdict":"Advance: Gay-Lussac's 1802–09 gas laws linked pressure and temperature at fixed volume.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gay-Lussac's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202151"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gay_lussac_s_law_202151"},{"id":"w_avogadro_s_law_170431","name":"Avogadro's law","year":1811,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Physical law that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules. 1811 – Avogadro's law, a gas law relating volume and amount of substance.","verdict":"Advance: Avogadro's law; the basis for counting molecules.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Avogadro's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170431"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_avogadro_s_law_170431"},{"id":"w_blowpipe_1520198","name":"Blowpipe","year":1819,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tool used to direct stream of gas. 1819 – Edward Daniel Clarke invents the hydrogen gas blowpipe.","verdict":"Advance: Edward Clarke's oxyhydrogen blowpipe melted platinum and lime, enabling high-temperature chemistry and the limelight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blowpipe_(tool)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1520198"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_blowpipe_1520198"},{"id":"w_limelight_555987","name":"Limelight","year":1823,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of stage lighting once used in theatres and music halls. 1823 – Goldsworthy Gurney demonstrates limelight.","verdict":"Advance: Goldsworthy Gurney's oxyhydrogen-heated lime gave theatres their first intense spotlight, and the word \"limelight\" survives long after the technique.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Limelight","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q555987"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_limelight_555987"},{"id":"w_balloon_9706","name":"Balloon","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Inflatable flexible bag filled with gas. 1824 – Michael Faraday invents the rubber balloon.","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1824 rubber balloons for hydrogen experiments became party staples and meteorological tools.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Balloon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9706"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_balloon_9706"},{"id":"w_faraday_s_laws_of_electrolysis_220609","name":"Faraday's laws of electrolysis","year":1834,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical law regarding electrolysis. 1834 – Michael Faraday publishes Faraday's laws of electrolysis.","verdict":"Advance: Faraday's 1834 electrolysis laws linked charge and chemical change, leading to the electron's charge.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Faraday's_laws_of_electrolysis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220609"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_faraday_s_laws_of_electrolysis_220609"},{"id":"w_ideal_gas_law_191785","name":"Ideal gas law","year":1834,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. 1834 – Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron – Ideal gas law.","verdict":"Advance: Clapeyron's 1834 ideal gas law (PV = nRT) unified Boyle's, Charles's and Gay-Lussac's laws.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ideal_gas_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ideal_gas_law_191785"},{"id":"w_primary_cell_1378887","name":"Primary cell","year":1836,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric battery designed to be used once and not recharged. 1836 – John Frederic Daniell invents a primary cell in which hydrogen is eliminated in the generation of the electricity.","verdict":"Advance: John Daniell's 1836 cell gave steady voltage for telegraph networks, the first practical battery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Primary_battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1378887"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_primary_cell_1378887"},{"id":"w_grove_cell_2004643","name":"Grove cell","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electric battery. 1839 – William Robert Grove develops the Grove cell.","verdict":"Advance: Grove's 1839 zinc–platinum cell gave high current to early telegraphs, until the Daniell cell and the cheaper Bunsen cell won out.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grove_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2004643"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_grove_cell_2004643"},{"id":"w_pressure_measurement_7424019","name":"Pressure measurement","year":1844,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Technique to measure pressure. 1844 — Lucien Vidi invents the aneroid Barograph","verdict":"Advance: Lucien Vidi's 1844 aneroid barometer measured pressure without mercury.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pressure_measurement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7424019"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pressure_measurement_7424019"},{"id":"w_hippomobile_906560","name":"Hippomobile","year":1863,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Automobile using an internal combustion engine, invented by Étienne Lenoir in 1863. 1863 – Etienne Lenoir makes a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont with the 1-cylinder, 2-stroke Hippomobile running on coal gas.","verdict":"Advance: Étienne Lenoir's 1863 Hippomobile drove 18 km from Paris to Joinville, the first gas-engine automobile run.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hippomobile","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q906560"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hippomobile_906560"},{"id":"w_hofmann_voltameter_653887","name":"Hofmann voltameter","year":1866,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Apparatus for electrolysing water. 1866 – August Wilhelm von Hofmann invents the Hofmann voltameter for the electrolysis of water.","verdict":"Advance: Hofmann's 1866 voltameter split water into measured hydrogen and oxygen, a classroom demonstration of water's 2:1 composition.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hofmann_voltameter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653887"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hofmann_voltameter_653887"},{"id":"w_water_gas_3099761","name":"Water gas","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. 1873 – Thaddeus S. C. Lowe – water gas; the process uses the water gas shift reaction.","verdict":"Advance: Thaddeus Lowe's 1873 water-gas process made cheap fuel gas from coke and steam, lighting US cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Water_gas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3099761"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_water_gas_3099761"},{"id":"w_hydrolysis_103135","name":"Hydrolysis","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. 1895 – Hydrolysis.","verdict":"Advance: Splitting molecules with water underlies digestion, soap-making and the breakdown of plastics in recycling research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrolysis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q103135"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hydrolysis_103135"},{"id":"w_hydrogen_production_process_1929999","name":"Hydrogen production process","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen. 1896 – Jackson D.D. and Ellms J.W., hydrogen production by microalgae ( Anabaena ).","verdict":"Advance: Industrial electrolysis of water, scaled by the 1890s, supplied hydrogen for balloons and later ammonia plants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogen_production","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1929999"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hydrogen_production_process_1929999"},{"id":"w_weather_balloon_1128180","name":"Weather balloon","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Meteorological instrumentation. 1896 – Leon Teisserenc de Bort carries out experiments with high flying instrumental weather balloons.","verdict":"Advance: Léon Teisserenc de Bort's 1896–1902 instrumented balloons discovered the stratosphere and enabled weather forecasting.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weather_balloon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128180"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_weather_balloon_1128180"},{"id":"w_hydrogenation_214166","name":"Hydrogenation","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. 1897 – Paul Sabatier facilitates the use of hydrogenation with the discovery of the Sabatier reaction.","verdict":"Advance: Paul Sabatier's catalytic hydrogenation (Nobel 1912) made margarine and later refined fuels and ammonia feedstock.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogenation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214166"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_hydrogenation_214166"},{"id":"w_solid_hydrogen_9003482","name":"Solid hydrogen","year":1899,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hydrogen in a solid state. 1899 – James Dewar collects solid hydrogen for the first time.","verdict":"Advance: James Dewar's 1899 solidification of hydrogen pushed cryogenics toward absolute zero.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solid_hydrogen","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9003482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_solid_hydrogen_9003482"},{"id":"w_lz_13_hansa_2650419","name":"LZ 13 Hansa","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1912 Zeppelin G-class passenger airship; conducted first international passenger flight. 1912 – The first scheduled international Zeppelin passenger flights with the Zeppelin LZ13.","verdict":"Advance: Zeppelin's LZ 13 Hansa ran the first international passenger flights (1912), using rigid airships commercially.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZ_13_Hansa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2650419"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lz_13_hansa_2650419"},{"id":"w_r33_class_airship_2123948","name":"R33 class airship","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1919 – The first Atlantic crossing by airship with the Beardmore HMA R34.","verdict":"Advance: Britain's R34 made the first east–west transatlantic airship crossing in 1919.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R33-class_airship","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2123948"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_r33_class_airship_2123948"},{"id":"w_cracking_212749","name":"Cracking","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Process breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler ones. 1920 – Hydrocracking, a plant for the commercial hydrogenation of brown coal is commissioned at Leuna in Germany.","verdict":"Advance: William Burton's 1913 thermal cracking doubled petrol yield per barrel, feeding the car boom.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cracking_(chemistry)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212749"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_cracking_212749"},{"id":"w_steam_reforming_556466","name":"Steam reforming","year":1923,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method for producing hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or other useful products from hydrocarbon fuels. 1923 – Steam reforming, the first synthetic methanol is produced by BASF in Leuna.","verdict":"Advance: BASF's 1923 steam reforming of methane became the dominant route to hydrogen, with high CO₂ output.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steam_reforming","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q556466"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_steam_reforming_556466"},{"id":"w_partial_oxidation_451467","name":"Partial oxidation","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical reaction. 1926 – Partial oxidation, Vandeveer and Parr at the University of Illinois use oxygen in the place of air for the production of syngas.","verdict":"Advance: Controlled partial oxidation turns hydrocarbons into syngas, the industrial route to hydrogen, methanol and synthetic fuels.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Partial_oxidation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451467"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_partial_oxidation_451467"},{"id":"w_lz_127_graf_zeppelin_721226","name":"LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"German Zeppelin (rigid airship). 1929 – The hydrogen-filled LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin makes a 33,234 km (20,651 mi; 17,945 nmi) circumnavigation of the world. It is the first and only airship to do so, and the second circumnavigation of the globe by air.","verdict":"Advance: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin flew around the world in 21 days in 1929, the peak of the airship era.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LZ_127_Graf_Zeppelin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q721226"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lz_127_graf_zeppelin_721226"},{"id":"w_lz_129_hindenburg_217964","name":"LZ 129 Hindenburg","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"German airship, launched in 1936 and destroyed in 1937. 1937 – The Zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg is destroyed by fire.","verdict":"Drift: The Hindenburg fire ended passenger airships overnight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LZ_129_Hindenburg","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217964"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lz_129_hindenburg_217964"},{"id":"w_heinkel_hes_1_2062299","name":"Heinkel HeS 1","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental hydrogen jet engine. 1937 – The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental gaseous hydrogen-fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth in March – the first working jet engine.","verdict":"Advance: Hans von Ohain's 1937 HeS 1 ran on hydrogen, demonstrating his jet-engine concept for Heinkel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_HeS_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2062299"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_hes_1_2062299"},{"id":"w_hydrogen_infrastructure_596395","name":"Hydrogen infrastructure","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Infrastructure of transporting hydrogen. 1938 – The first 240 km hydrogen pipeline Rhine-Ruhr.","verdict":"Advance: The 1938 Rhine–Ruhr hydrogen pipeline (240 km) still operates, a model for future hydrogen networks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogen_infrastructure","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q596395"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hydrogen_infrastructure_596395"},{"id":"w_rocket_propellant_287464","name":"Rocket propellant","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical or mixture used as fuel for a rocket engine. 1941 - French rocket EA-41 is launched, being the first European liquid propellant working rocket (It was, however, preceded by the Peenemunde A5 and Soviet experiments.)","verdict":"Advance: Propellant chemistry, from Goddard's gasoline-LOX to hydrogen and methalox, decides rocket performance and cost.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rocket_propellant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287464"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rocket_propellant_287464"},{"id":"w_hydrox_911491","name":"Hydrox","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Breathing gas mixture experimentally used for very deep diving. 1943 – Arne Zetterström describes hydrox.","verdict":"Advance: Arne Zetterström's 1945 hydrogen–oxygen dives tested deep-diving gases, though he died in an accident during them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911491"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hydrox_911491"},{"id":"w_hydrodesulfurization_899016","name":"Hydrodesulfurization","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1949 – Hydrodesulfurization ( catalytic reforming ) is commercialized under the name \"platforming process\".","verdict":"Advance: Hydrodesulphurization strips sulphur from fuels, cutting acid rain and enabling clean diesel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrodesulfurization","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899016"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hydrodesulfurization_899016"},{"id":"w_hydrogen_storage_1203442","name":"Hydrogen storage","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Any method for storing hydrogen for later use. 1951 – Underground hydrogen storage.","verdict":"Advance: Underground caverns, used from the 1970s at Teesside, store hydrogen at scale for industry and future grids.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogen_storage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1203442"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_hydrogen_storage_1203442"},{"id":"w_project_gemini_214996","name":"Project Gemini","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA's second human spaceflight program. 1965 – The first commercial use of a fuel cell in Project Gemini.","verdict":"Advance: Project Gemini (1965–66) mastered rendezvous, docking and spacewalks, and flew the first fuel cell.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Project_Gemini","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214996"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_project_gemini_214996"},{"id":"w_golf_cart_1431095","name":"Golf cart","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Small vehicle designed originally to carry golfers. 1932 - The first electric golf cart was custom-made in 1932, but did not gain widespread acceptance.","verdict":"Advance: Electric golf carts (1932) became neighbourhood vehicles in retirement communities and resorts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Golf_cart","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1431095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_golf_cart_1431095"},{"id":"w_j_2_967676","name":"J-2","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cryogenic rocket engine by Rocketdyne. 1966 – J-2 (rocket engine) liquid hydrogen rocket engine flies.","verdict":"Advance: Rocketdyne's J-2 (1966) hydrogen engine powered the Saturn V upper stages to the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rocketdyne_J-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q967676"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_j_2_967676"},{"id":"w_nickel_hydrogen_battery_900403","name":"Nickel–hydrogen battery","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of rechargeable battery. 1970 – Nickel hydrogen battery.","verdict":"Advance: Nickel–hydrogen cells, used from 1970s satellites to the Hubble Space Telescope, deliver tens of thousands of cycles in orbit.","dependencies":["w_rechargeable_battery_187510"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q900403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nickel_hydrogen_battery_900403"},{"id":"w_international_standard_book_number_33057","name":"International Standard Book Number","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Unique numeric book identifier. Carlson, W. Bernard (2003). Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and the Rise of General Electric. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521533126.","verdict":"Advance: Standard book numbering (1966–70) gave every title a machine-readable ID, streamlining publishing, libraries and online retail.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ISBN","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_international_standard_book_number_33057"},{"id":"w_hm7b_1564032","name":"HM7B","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"European rocket engine. 1979 – HM7B rocket engine.","verdict":"Advance: Europe's HM7B hydrogen upper-stage engine (1979) powered Ariane rockets for four decades.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HM7B","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1564032"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hm7b_1564032"},{"id":"w_tupolev_tu_155_170085","name":"Tupolev Tu-155","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Testbed aeroplane. 1988 – First flight of Tupolev Tu-155, a variant of the Tu-154 airliner designed to run on hydrogen.","verdict":"Advance: Tupolev's Tu-155 (1988) flew on hydrogen and LNG, a pioneer of alternative-fuel airliners.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tupolev_Tu-155","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170085"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tupolev_tu_155_170085"},{"id":"w_vulcain_44532","name":"Vulcain","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of European first stage rocket engines. 1996 – Vulcain rocket engine.","verdict":"Advance: Europe's Vulcain hydrogen engine (1996) powered Ariane 5's core stage.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vulcain_(rocket_engine)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44532"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vulcain_44532"},{"id":"w_type_212_a_submarine_310512","name":"Type 212 A submarine","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"2002 class of German submarines. 1998 – Type 212 submarine.","verdict":"Compete: Germany's Type 212A uses fuel cells for weeks of near-silent submerged running without nuclear power.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Type_212A_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q310512"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2002)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_type_212_a_submarine_310512"},{"id":"w_type_214_class_submarine_494403","name":"Type 214-class submarine","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Submarine class. 2002 – Type 214 submarine.","verdict":"Compete: The Type 214, the export version of the 212, brought fuel-cell air-independent propulsion to navies from South Korea to Greece.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Type_214_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q494403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2007)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_type_214_class_submarine_494403"},{"id":"w_hydrogen_train_1261849","name":"Hydrogen train","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Rail vehicle using on-board hydrogen fuel as a source of energy. 2002 – The first hydrail locomotive is demonstrated in Val-d'Or, Quebec.","verdict":"Advance: Hydrogen trains (first demo in 2002; Alstom's Coradia iLint in 2018) run non-electrified lines without emissions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogen_train","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1261849"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hydrogen_train_1261849"},{"id":"w_power_to_gas_12646543","name":"Power to gas","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process to convert electric power into hydrogen or methane. 2013 – The first commercial 2 megawatt power to gas installation in Falkenhagen comes online for 360 cubic meters of hydrogen per hour hydrogen storage into the natural gas grid.","verdict":"Advance: Audi's 2013 Werlte plant turned surplus wind power into synthetic methane, storing renewables in the gas grid.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Power-to-gas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12646543"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_power_to_gas_12646543"},{"id":"w_micro_combined_heat_and_power_128151","name":"Micro combined heat and power","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small-scale generation of heat and power. 2014 – The Japanese fuel cell micro combined heat and power (mCHP) ENE FARM project passes 100,000 sold systems.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's Ene-Farm (2009) fuel-cell home units supply heat and power, with hundreds of thousands installed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Micro_combined_heat_and_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q128151"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_micro_combined_heat_and_power_128151"},{"id":"w_toyota_mirai_18353760","name":"Toyota Mirai","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hydrogen fuel cell car. 2014 – Toyota releases its first hydrogen fuel cell car, the Mirai.","verdict":"Advance: Toyota's Mirai (2014) was the first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell car, though limited by fuel stations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Toyota_Mirai","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18353760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_toyota_mirai_18353760"},{"id":"w_artificial_photosynthesis_654623","name":"Artificial photosynthesis","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process of photosynthesis. 2022 – Researchers in Cambridge develop floating artificial leaves for light-driven hydrogen production. The lightweight, flexible devices are scalable and can float on water similar to lotus leaves.","verdict":"Advance: Artificial leaves that make fuel from sunlight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_photosynthesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q654623"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_artificial_photosynthesis_654623"},{"id":"w_inoculation_1664296","name":"Inoculation","year":1549,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial introduction of infection to cells, tissue, or an organism. 1549 – The earliest account of inoculation of smallpox ( variolation ) occurs in Wan Quan 's (1499–1582) Douzhen Xinfa (痘疹心法)","verdict":"Advance: Variolation, using live smallpox matter to trigger mild immunity, appears in Chinese texts by 1549 and reached England in 1721, the forerunner of vaccination.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inoculation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1664296"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_inoculation_1664296"},{"id":"w_spontaneous_remission_1639997","name":"Spontaneous remission","year":1813,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Diminution or abatement of a disease over time, without formal treatment. 1813 – Vautier reports spontaneous remission of cancer after gangrene infection (later to be known as Clostridium perfringens )","verdict":"Advance: Documented cases of cancers regressing untreated, rare but real, pushed researchers toward the immune therapies that now exploit the effect.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spontaneous_remission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1639997"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_spontaneous_remission_1639997"},{"id":"w_complement_system_334848","name":"Complement system","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Part of the immune system that enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promotes inflammation, and attacks the pathogen's cell membrane. 1896 – An antibacterial, heat-labile serum component ( complement ) is described ( Jules Bordet )","verdict":"Advance: Jules Bordet's 1896 discovery of complement revealed the blood-borne enzymes that help antibodies kill, which led to the Wassermann syphilis test.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Complement_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334848"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_complement_system_334848"},{"id":"w_anaphylaxis_168800","name":"Anaphylaxis","year":1902,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Severe allergic reaction. 1902 – Immediate hypersensitivity anaphylaxis ( Paul Portier ) and ( Charles Richet )","verdict":"Advance: Discovery of anaphylaxis; the basis of allergy medicine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anaphylaxis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168800"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_anaphylaxis_168800"},{"id":"w_haptens_506441","name":"Haptens","year":1917,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. 1917 – Hapten ( Karl Landsteiner )","verdict":"Advance: Karl Landsteiner's 1917 haptens showed that small molecules provoke immunity only on carriers, explaining drug allergies and enabling conjugate vaccines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hapten","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506441"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_haptens_506441"},{"id":"w_adjuvant_357896","name":"Adjuvant","year":1925,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Agent that modifies or enhances the effect of other agents such as drugs or vaccines while having few if any direct effects when given by itself. 1925 – Adjuvants ( Gaston Ramon )","verdict":"Advance: Boosts vaccine potency so fewer doses protect more people.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjuvant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q357896"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_adjuvant_357896"},{"id":"w_rh_blood_group_system_425832","name":"Rh blood group system","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Human blood group system. 1940 – Identification of the Rh antigens ( Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Weiner )","verdict":"Advance: Landsteiner and Wiener's 1940 Rh factor explained transfusion reactions and haemolytic disease of the newborn, which anti-D shots now prevent.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rh_blood_group_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q425832"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rh_blood_group_system_425832"},{"id":"w_allotransplantation_1773075","name":"Allotransplantation","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Transplantation between individuals of the same species. 1944 – hypothesis of allograft rejection","verdict":"Advance: Understanding graft rejection opened the path to transplants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Allotransplantation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1773075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_allotransplantation_1773075"},{"id":"w_coombs_test_740056","name":"Coombs test","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Blood test used in immunohematology, application of anti-antibodies (Coombs' reagent). 1945 – Coombs test a.k.a. antiglobulin test (AGT)","verdict":"Advance: Coombs, Mourant and Race's 1945 antiglobulin test detects antibodies coating red cells, still used to cross-match blood and screen newborns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coombs_test","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q740056"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_coombs_test_740056"},{"id":"w_major_histocompatibility_complex_423163","name":"Major histocompatibility complex","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set of genes for cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules in vertebrates, which in turn determines histocompatibility. 1946 – Identification of mouse MHC (H2) ( George Snell and Peter A. Gorer )","verdict":"Advance: Peter Gorer and George Snell's histocompatibility genes explained graft rejection, the key to matching donors in transplants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Major_histocompatibility_complex","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q423163"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_major_histocompatibility_complex_423163"},{"id":"w_neurotropic_virus_3560951","name":"Neurotropic virus","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Virus that is capable of infecting nerve cells. 1949 – Growth of polio virus in tissue culture, neutralization, and demonstration of attenuation of neurovirulence ( John Enders ), ( Thomas Weller ) and ( Frederick Robbins )","verdict":"Advance: Enders, Weller and Robbins grew poliovirus in non-nerve tissue culture in 1949 (Nobel 1954), making the Salk and Sabin vaccines possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neurotropic_virus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560951"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_neurotropic_virus_3560951"},{"id":"w_immune_tolerance_1356761","name":"Immune tolerance","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. 1953 – Validation of immunological tolerance hypothesis","verdict":"Advance: Medawar, Billingham and Brent's 1953 mouse experiments showed that tolerance is acquired (Nobel 1960), the basis of transplant immunology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Immune_tolerance","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1356761"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_immune_tolerance_1356761"},{"id":"w_clonal_selection_1150780","name":"Clonal selection","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Model of the immune system response to infection. 1957 – Clonal selection theory ( Frank Macfarlane Burnet )","verdict":"Advance: Frank Macfarlane Burnet's 1957 clonal selection theory explained how the body picks out matching lymphocytes, the central principle of adaptive immunity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Clonal_selection","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1150780"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_clonal_selection_1150780"},{"id":"w_radioimmunoassay_857638","name":"Radioimmunoassay","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioligand. 1960 – Radioimmunoassay – ( Rosalyn Sussman Yalow )","verdict":"Advance: Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson's 1960 radioimmunoassay measured hormones at trace levels (Nobel 1977), launching modern endocrinology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radioimmunoassay","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_radioimmunoassay_857638"},{"id":"w_interferon_gamma_24741149","name":"Interferon gamma","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"InterPro Family. 1965 – Discovery of \"immune interferon\" ( gamma interferon ) ( E.F. Wheelock )","verdict":"Advance: E. F. Wheelock's 1965 \"immune interferon\" became known as the key cytokine for macrophage activation, used to treat chronic granulomatous disease.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interferon_gamma","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q24741149"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_interferon_gamma_24741149"},{"id":"w_interleukin_1_family_1706141","name":"Interleukin-1 family","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Group of cytokines playing a key role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses. 1980–1983 – Discovery and characterization of interleukins, 1 and 2 IL-1 IL-2 ( Robert Gallo, Kendall A. Smith, Tadatsugu Taniguchi )","verdict":"Advance: Interleukin-1 identified the fever-and-inflammation messenger, now blocked by drugs like anakinra for autoinflammatory disease.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interleukin-1_family","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1706141"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_interleukin_1_family_1706141"},{"id":"w_t_cell_receptor_412037","name":"T-cell receptor","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Molecule found on the surface of some immune cells. 1983 – Discovery of the T cell antigen receptor TCR ( Ellis Reinherz ) ( Philippa Marrack and John Kappler ), ( James Allison )","verdict":"Advance: Allison, Haskins and Marrack's 1983 T-cell receptor discovery explained antigen recognition, a basis for CAR-T design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/T-cell_receptor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q412037"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_t_cell_receptor_412037"},{"id":"w_tisagenlecleucel_30314624","name":"Tisagenlecleucel","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medication. 2017 – First autologous CAR T-cell therapy tisagenlecleucel approved for the treatment of pediatric B-ALL; second autologous CAR T-cell therapy axicabtagene ciloleucel (Yescarta) is approved","verdict":"Advance: Novartis's Kymriah (2017) engineers a patient's own T cells to kill leukaemia, the first approved CAR-T, with lasting remission in many children.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tisagenlecleucel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30314624"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tisagenlecleucel_30314624"},{"id":"w_h_theorem_899853","name":"H-theorem","year":1872,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem stating that a quantity H (meant to represent entropy) increases monotonically with time, given an initial condition called molecular chaos (thus breaking time reversal symmetry). 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann presents his H-theorem, and with it the formula Σ p i log p i for the entropy of a single gas particle","verdict":"Advance: Boltzmann's 1872 H-theorem showed entropy increase from molecular collisions, sparking debate about time's arrow.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/H-theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899853"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_h_theorem_899853"},{"id":"w_entropy_12727673","name":"Statistical entropy (Boltzmann)","year":1877,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Entropy in statistics. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy.","verdict":"Advance: Boltzmann's 1877 S = k log W linked entropy to microstates, engraved on his tomb.","dependencies":["w_entropy_45003"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Entropy_(statistical_thermodynamics)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12727673"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_entropy_12727673"},{"id":"w_von_neumann_entropy_6961323","name":"Von Neumann entropy","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of entropy in quantum statistical mechanics. 1927 – John von Neumann defines the von Neumann entropy, extending the Gibbs entropy to quantum mechanics","verdict":"Advance: Von Neumann's 1927 quantum entropy measures entanglement in quantum information.","dependencies":["w_entropy_45003"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Von_Neumann_entropy","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6961323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_von_neumann_entropy_6961323"},{"id":"w_maxwell_s_demon_212397","name":"Maxwell's demon","year":1867,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thought experiment. 1867 – Maxwell asks whether Maxwell's demon could reverse irreversible processes","verdict":"Advance: Maxwell's 1867 demon showed information and entropy are linked, resolved by Landauer's principle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maxwell's_demon","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212397"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_maxwell_s_demon_212397"},{"id":"w_nyquist_shannon_sampling_theorem_679800","name":"Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem in signal processing describing discrete samples of a continuous signal. 1949 – Claude E. Shannon publishes Communication in the Presence of Noise – Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem and Shannon–Hartley law","verdict":"Advance: Shannon's 1949 sampling theorem, building on Nyquist and Kotelnikov, underpins digital audio.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q679800"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nyquist_shannon_sampling_theorem_679800"},{"id":"w_shannon_fano_coding_2645","name":"Shannon–Fano coding","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique for constructing a prefix code. 1949 – Robert M. Fano publishes Transmission of Information. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts – Shannon–Fano coding","verdict":"Advance: Shannon and Fano's 1949 coding preceded Huffman's optimal method in data compression.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shannon%E2%80%93Fano_coding","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2645"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_shannon_fano_coding_2645"},{"id":"w_kraft_s_inequality_371685","name":"Kraft's inequality","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a prefix code for a given set of codeword lengths. 1949 – Leon G. Kraft discovers Kraft's inequality, which shows the limits of prefix codes","verdict":"Advance: Leon Kraft's 1949 inequality limits prefix-code lengths, a basic result in compression.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kraft%E2%80%93McMillan_inequality","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q371685"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kraft_s_inequality_371685"},{"id":"w_convolutional_code_1395022","name":"Convolutional code","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of error-correcting code using convolution. 1955 – Peter Elias introduces convolutional codes","verdict":"Advance: Peter Elias's 1955 convolutional codes, decoded by Viterbi, were used for Voyager and cellular data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Convolutional_code","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1395022"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_convolutional_code_1395022"},{"id":"w_cyclic_code_245464","name":"Cyclic code","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Block code where the circular shifts of each codeword gives another word that belongs to the code. 1957 – Eugene Prange first discusses cyclic codes","verdict":"Advance: Eugene Prange's 1957 cyclic codes led to Reed–Solomon and BCH codes in CDs and QR codes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cyclic_code","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245464"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cyclic_code_245464"},{"id":"w_low_density_parity_check_code_187444","name":"Low-density parity-check code","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Linear error correcting code. 1962 – Robert G. Gallager proposes low-density parity-check codes; they are unused for 30 years due to technical limitations","verdict":"Advance: Robert Gallager's 1962 LDPC codes were forgotten until the 1990s, then adopted for Wi-Fi, 5G and DVB-S2.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Low-density_parity-check_code","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187444"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_low_density_parity_check_code_187444"},{"id":"w_berlekamp_massey_algorithm_821007","name":"Berlekamp–Massey algorithm","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1968 – Elwyn Berlekamp invents the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm; its application to decoding BCH and Reed–Solomon codes is pointed out by James L. Massey the following year","verdict":"Advance: Berlekamp's 1968 algorithm, applied by Massey, decodes Reed–Solomon codes used in CDs, QR codes and deep-space links.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Berlekamp%E2%80%93Massey_algorithm","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q821007"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_berlekamp_massey_algorithm_821007"},{"id":"w_discrete_cosine_transform_2877","name":"Discrete cosine transform","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Technique representing data as sums of cosine functions. 1972 – Nasir Ahmed proposes the discrete cosine transform (DCT), which he develops with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973;","verdict":"Advance: Nasir Ahmed's 1972 discrete cosine transform underlies JPEG, MPEG and most video compression.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Discrete_cosine_transform","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_discrete_cosine_transform_2877"},{"id":"w_trellis_modulation_557200","name":"Trellis modulation","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Modulation scheme in telecommunication. 1976 – Gottfried Ungerboeck gives the first paper on trellis modulation; a more detailed exposition in 1982 leads to a raising of analogue modem POTS speeds from 9.6 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s","verdict":"Advance: Gottfried Ungerboeck's 1976 trellis modulation boosted dial-up modems to 33.6 kbit/s.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trellis_coded_modulation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q557200"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_trellis_modulation_557200"},{"id":"w_arithmetic_coding_2651","name":"Arithmetic coding","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of entropy encoding used in lossless data compression. 1976 – Richard Pasco and Jorma J. Rissanen develop effective arithmetic coding techniques","verdict":"Advance: Near-optimal compression; inside modern codecs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arithmetic_coding","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2651"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_arithmetic_coding_2651"},{"id":"w_zip_136218","name":"ZIP","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of archive file format. 1989 – Phil Katz publishes the.zip format including DEFLATE (LZ77 + Huffman coding); later to become the most widely used archive container","verdict":"Advance: Phil Katz's ZIP format (1989) became the standard archive, used in Office documents and Java JARs.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ZIP_(file_format)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136218"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_zip_136218"},{"id":"w_qubit_378201","name":"Qubit","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Unit of quantum information, analogous to the classical bit. 1995 – Benjamin Schumacher coins the term qubit and proves the quantum noiseless coding theorem","verdict":"Advance: Benjamin Schumacher coined \"qubit\" in 1995, the unit of quantum computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Qubit","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378201"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_qubit_378201"},{"id":"w_asymmetric_numeral_systems_28132900","name":"Asymmetric Numeral Systems","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Enthropy coding methods. 2006 – Jarosław Duda introduces first Asymmetric numeral systems entropy coding: since 2014 popular replacement of Huffman and arithmetic coding in compressors like Facebook Zstandard, Apple LZFSE, CRAM or JPEG XL","verdict":"Advance: Duda's ANS compression; now inside Zstandard and Apple's LZFSE.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Asymmetric_numeral_systems","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28132900"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_asymmetric_numeral_systems_28132900"},{"id":"w_polar_code_7209069","name":"Polar code","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of error correcting code. 2008 – Erdal Arıkan introduces polar codes, the first practical construction of codes that achieves capacity for a wide array of channels","verdict":"Advance: Erdal Arıkan's 2008 polar codes, the first proven capacity-achieving codes, were adopted for 5G control channels.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polar_code_(coding_theory)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7209069"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_polar_code_7209069"},{"id":"w_turbocharger_185525","name":"Turbocharger","year":1903,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Exhaust-powered forced-induction device for engines. 1900: Sanford Alexander Moss publishes a paper on turbocompressors. He builds and runs a testbed example in 1903.","verdict":"Advance: Alfred Büchi's 1905 turbocharger used exhaust energy to boost power, now standard for efficiency in engines.","dependencies":["w_supercharger_1079988"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turbocharger","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185525"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_turbocharger_185525"},{"id":"w_centrifugal_compressor_1048872","name":"Centrifugal compressor","year":1903,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. 1903: Ægidius Elling builds a gas turbine using a centrifugal compressor which runs under its own power. By most definitions, this is the first working gas turbine.","verdict":"Advance: Ægidius Elling's 1903 gas turbine used a centrifugal compressor, the design later behind Whittle's jet engine and turbochargers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Centrifugal_compressor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1048872"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_centrifugal_compressor_1048872"},{"id":"w_pulsejet_671090","name":"Pulsejet","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Jet engine utilizing combustion in pulses to create jet propulsion. 1907: Victor Kavarodine builds the first pulsejet engine based on his 1906 patent.","verdict":"Advance: Victor de Karavodine's 1906–07 pulsejet led to the V-1's Argus engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pulsejet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q671090"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pulsejet_671090"},{"id":"w_axial_compressor_742777","name":"Axial compressor","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pressure producing machine. 1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.","verdict":"Advance: Axial compressors became the heart of jet engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Axial_compressor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q742777"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_axial_compressor_742777"},{"id":"w_airfoil_4698744","name":"Airfoil","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade (of a propeller, rotor, or turbine), or sail. 1926: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes his groundbreaking paper Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, changing the low confidence in jet engines.","verdict":"Advance: Griffith's airfoil theory for compressor blades enabled the jet engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Airfoil","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4698744"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_airfoil_4698744"},{"id":"w_motorjet_1545302","name":"Motorjet","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of jet engine. 1931: Secondo Campini patents his motorjet engine, referring to it as a thermojet. (A motorjet is a crude form of hybrid jet engine in which the compressor is powered by a piston engine, rather than a turbine.)","verdict":"Advance: Secondo Campini's motorjet used a piston engine to drive a compressor, an early step toward the turbojet.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Motorjet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1545302"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_motorjet_1545302"},{"id":"w_caproni_campini_n_1_963609","name":"Caproni Campini N.1","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental Italian jet aircraft of the 1930/40s. 1934: Secondo Campini starts work on the Campini Caproni CC.2, based on his \"thermojet\" engine.","verdict":"Advance: Caproni Campini's N.1 flew in 1940, Italy's first jet-propelled flight, though slower than propeller planes.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caproni_Campini_N.1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q963609"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_caproni_campini_n_1_963609"},{"id":"w_turboprop_309027","name":"Turboprop","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Turbine engine driving an aircraft propeller. 1936: Junkers starts work on axial-flow turboprop designs under the direction of Herbert Wagner and Adolf Müeller.","verdict":"Advance: Turboprops, first run by Jendrassik in 1940, combine turbine power with propeller efficiency for regional aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turboprop","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309027"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_turboprop_309027"},{"id":"w_heinkel_he_178_161540","name":"Heinkel He 178","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Experimental jet aircraft. 1938: The Heinkel He 178 V1 jet testbed is completed, awaiting an engine.","verdict":"Advance: The He 178 made the first turbojet-powered flight on 27 August 1939, opening the jet age.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_He_178","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161540"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_he_178_161540"},{"id":"w_hes_3_450482","name":"HeS 3","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Engine series by Heinkel. 1938: The Heinkel HeS 3 \"flight quality\" engine is tested. This is the first truly usable jet engine. The engine flies on a Heinkel He 118 later that year, eventually becoming the first aircraft to be powered by jet power alone.","verdict":"Advance: Von Ohain's HeS 3 powered the He 178's first flight, proving the turbojet as a flight engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_HeS_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q450482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hes_3_450482"},{"id":"w_messerschmitt_me_262_140254","name":"Messerschmitt Me 262","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"German fighter aircraft. 1938: Messerschmitt starts the preliminary design of a twin-engine jet fighter under the direction of Waldemar Voight. This work developed into the Messerschmitt Me 262.","verdict":"Compete: The Me 262, the first operational jet fighter (1944), outran Allied fighters but arrived too late and in too few numbers to change the war.","dependencies":["jet"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Messerschmitt_Me_262","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q140254"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_messerschmitt_me_262_140254"},{"id":"w_gloster_e_28_39_430259","name":"Gloster E.28/39","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Britain's first jet aircraft. September: The Air Ministry also contracts Gloster to build an experimental airframe for testing Whittle's engines, the Gloster E.28/39","verdict":"Advance: Gloster's E.28/39, flown in 1941 with Whittle's engine, was Britain's first jet aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gloster_E.28%2F39","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q430259"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_gloster_e_28_39_430259"},{"id":"w_metropolitan_vickers_f_2_3855741","name":"Metropolitan-Vickers F.2","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Aircraft engine model. After hearing of Whittle's successful demonstration, Hayne Constant realizes that exhaust thrust is practical. The Metrovick efforts are quickly reworked into a turbojet design, the Metrovick F.2.","verdict":"Advance: Metropolitan-Vickers' F.2 (1941) was one of the first axial-flow turbojets, ancestor of modern engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metropolitan-Vickers_F.2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3855741"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_metropolitan_vickers_f_2_3855741"},{"id":"w_heinkel_hes_8_2062335","name":"Heinkel HeS 8","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Jet engine. von Ohain's larger Heinkel HeS 8 (-001) engine is tested.","verdict":"Advance: Von Ohain's larger HeS 8 turbojet (1941) powered the He 280 but never entered production.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_HeS_8","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2062335"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_hes_8_2062335"},{"id":"w_heinkel_he_280_698685","name":"Heinkel He 280","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental jet aircraft. September: Glider testing of the Heinkel He 280 twin-jet fighter begins, while it waits for the HeS 8 to mature.","verdict":"Advance: The He 280 flew in 1941 as the first twin-jet fighter prototype and tested the first ejection seats.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_He_280","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q698685"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_he_280_698685"},{"id":"w_junkers_jumo_004_695801","name":"Junkers Jumo 004","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turbojet aircraft engine. November: The Junkers Jumo 004 axial-flow engine is tested.","verdict":"Advance: Anselm Franz's axial-flow Jumo 004 was the first mass-produced jet engine (about 8,000 built), and axial compressors became the standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Junkers_Jumo_004","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695801"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_junkers_jumo_004_695801"},{"id":"w_gloster_meteor_140318","name":"Gloster Meteor","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1943 fighter aircraft family; Britain's first jet fighter. November: Gloster Aircraft Company 's proposal for a twin-engine jet fighter is accepted, becoming the Gloster Meteor.","verdict":"Compete: The Gloster Meteor, the only Allied jet in WWII combat, intercepted V-1 flying bombs in 1944.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gloster_Meteor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q140318"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_gloster_meteor_140318"},{"id":"w_lockheed_j37_6665558","name":"Lockheed J37","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Early US turbojet engine. The Lockheed Corporation starts work on the L-1000 axial-flow engine, the United States's first jet design.","verdict":"Advance: Lockheed's L-1000 axial engine was an early US jet design that informed later turbojets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lockheed_J37","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6665558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lockheed_j37_6665558"},{"id":"w_jendrassik_cs_1_289702","name":"Jendrassik Cs-1","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turboprop engine. After only two years of development, the Jendrassik Cs-1 turboprop engine is tested. Designed to produce 1,000 horsepower (750 kW), combustion problems limit it to only 400 horsepower (300 kW) when it first runs.","verdict":"Advance: György Jendrassik's Cs-1 (1940) was the first turboprop engine to run, a Hungarian pioneer of the type.","dependencies":["w_turboprop_309027"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jendrassik_Cs-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q289702"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_jendrassik_cs_1_289702"},{"id":"w_heavy_fighter_2961442","name":"Heavy fighter","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Historical class of fighter aircraft; primarily used in the pre-War and WWII period. Work on the Jendrassik Cs-1 ends. Intended to power a twin-engine heavy fighter, the factory is selected to produce Daimler-Benz DB 605 engines under license for the Messerschmitt Me 210 instead.","verdict":"Compete: Twin-engine heavy fighters like the Bf 110 offered long-range escort but proved vulnerable to nimble single-seaters, and the role faded.","dependencies":["airplane"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heavy_fighter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2961442","https://grokipedia.com/page/Bomber"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_heavy_fighter_2961442"},{"id":"w_heinkel_hes_011_553178","name":"Heinkel HeS 011","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"German turbojet engine. Work on the HeS 8 (-001) and HeS 30 (-006) is stopped, although the later appears to be reaching production quality. Heinkel is ordered to continue on the more advanced Heinkel HeS 011.","verdict":"Advance: The Heinkel HeS 011, a 1945 axial-flow turbojet, influenced postwar French and US designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_HeS_011","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q553178"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_hes_011_553178"},{"id":"w_westinghouse_j30_7988946","name":"Westinghouse J30","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turbojet aircraft engine family. Westinghouse starts work on an axial-flow engine design, the WE-19.","verdict":"Advance: Westinghouse's J30 (1943) was the first US axial-flow jet engine to fly.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Westinghouse_J30","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7988946"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_westinghouse_j30_7988946"},{"id":"w_p_59_airacomet_278162","name":"P-59 Airacomet","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1942 fighter aircraft series by Bell. October: The Bell XP-59 flies, powered by a General Electric Type I-A (W.1).","verdict":"Compete: Bell's P-59, the first US jet, was underpowered for combat but trained the pilots and engineers of America's jet age.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bell_P-59_Airacomet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278162"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_p_59_airacomet_278162"},{"id":"w_v_1_153348","name":"V-1","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1944 cruise missile by Fieseler. The Fieseler Fi 103 V-1 pulsejet powered \"flying bomb\" ( cruise missile ) flies for the first time.","verdict":"Compete: Germany's pulsejet V-1, launched against London from June 1944, was the first operational cruise missile; about 10,000 were fired.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/V-1_flying_bomb","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153348"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_v_1_153348"},{"id":"w_armstrong_siddeley_asx_16962010","name":"Armstrong Siddeley ASX","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1940s British turbojet aircraft engine. Armstrong Siddeley starts work on an axial-flow design, the ASX.","verdict":"Advance: Early British turbojet design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Siddeley_ASX","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16962010"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_armstrong_siddeley_asx_16962010"},{"id":"w_rolls_royce_meteor_604206","name":"Rolls-Royce Meteor","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"V tank engine. December: After meeting held at a pub, Rover agrees to hand over the jet development to Rolls-Royce, in exchange for their Rolls-Royce Meteor tank engine factory.","verdict":"Compete: The Rolls-Royce Meteor, a de-rated Merlin aero engine for tanks, powered the Cromwell and Centurion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Meteor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q604206"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rolls_royce_meteor_604206"},{"id":"w_rb_23_welland_914043","name":"RB.23 Welland","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turbojet aircraft engine, Britain's first production jet. After only a few short months since Rolls-Royce took over from Rover, the W.2B/23, soon to be known as the Rolls-Royce Welland, starts production.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Welland (1943) was Britain's first production jet engine, powering the Gloster Meteor.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Welland","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q914043"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rb_23_welland_914043"},{"id":"w_rb_37_derwent_1422633","name":"RB.37 Derwent","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1940s British turbojet aircraft engine. The parallel Rover design effort, the W.2B/26, is adopted by Rolls-Royce for further development and becomes the Rolls-Royce Derwent.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Derwent powered later Meteors and the 1946 world speed record.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Derwent","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1422633"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rb_37_derwent_1422633"},{"id":"w_de_havilland_goblin_1050411","name":"De Havilland Goblin","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1940s British turbojet aircraft engine. The de Havilland Goblin engine is tested, similar in most ways to the Derwent.","verdict":"Advance: De Havilland's Goblin powered the Vampire and the first carrier jet landing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Havilland_Goblin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1050411"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_de_havilland_goblin_1050411"},{"id":"w_lockheed_f_80_shooting_star_751759","name":"Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Multirole combat aircraft family. March: A license for the Goblin is taken out in the United States by Allis-Chalmers, later becoming the J36. Lockheed is awarded a contract to develop what would become the P-80 Shooting Star, powered by this engine.","verdict":"Compete: Lockheed's F-80, designed in 143 days by Kelly Johnson's Skunk Works, became the first operational US jet fighter.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lockheed_P-80_Shooting_Star","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_lockheed_f_80_shooting_star_751759"},{"id":"w_bmw_018_796365","name":"BMW 018","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"German turbojet engine. Design work on the BMW 018 starts.","verdict":"Advance: BMW's 018 project designed a large axial engine that German defeat left unfinished.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BMW_018","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796365"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bmw_018_796365"},{"id":"w_j33_477394","name":"J33","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Turbojet engine family by Allison. September: Allis-Chalmers runs into difficulty on the J36, and the Shooting Star project is re-engined with the General Electric J33, a licensed version of the W.2B/26, or Rolls-Royce Derwent.","verdict":"Advance: Allison's J33 powered the F-80 Shooting Star and launched US mass production of jet engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Allison_J33","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477394"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_j33_477394"},{"id":"w_vickers_wellington_850244","name":"Vickers Wellington","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Twin-enginded medium bomber family, 1936. Frank Whittle 's W.2B/700 engine is tested, fitted to a Vickers Wellington Mk II bomber.","verdict":"Compete: The geodesic-framed Wellington flew more than 11,000 sorties for RAF Bomber Command and later tested Whittle's jet engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vickers_Wellington","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q850244"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_vickers_wellington_850244"},{"id":"w_m_52_505434","name":"M.52","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1942 British supersonic jet project. Miles Aircraft test an all-moving tailplane as part of the Miles M.52 supersonic research aircraft design effort.","verdict":"Advance: Miles' M.52 supersonic project (cancelled in 1946) pioneered the all-moving tailplane later used on the X-1.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Miles_M.52","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505434"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_m_52_505434"},{"id":"w_de_havilland_vampire_179835","name":"De Havilland Vampire","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1943 fighter aircraft family; first single-engine jet in RAF service. The Goblin-powered de Havilland Vampire flies.","verdict":"Compete: De Havilland's Vampire (1943) made the first jet landing on an aircraft carrier in 1945.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Havilland_Vampire","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179835"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_de_havilland_vampire_179835"},{"id":"w_general_electric_j31_2450750","name":"General Electric J31","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Jet engine. The General Electric J31, their version of the W.2B/23, is tested.","verdict":"Advance: GE's J31, a licensed Whittle design, was the first US-built jet engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_Electric_J31","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2450750"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_general_electric_j31_2450750"},{"id":"w_rolls_royce_rb_50_trent_7361343","name":"Rolls-Royce RB.50 Trent","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"British Turboprop. June: A Derwent II engine is modified with an additional turbine stage powering a gearbox and five-bladed propeller. The resulting RB.50, or Rolls-Royce Trent, is not further developed, but is test flown on a modified Gloster Meteor.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's 1945 Trent turned the Derwent into the world's first turboprop to fly (on a Meteor).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_RB.50_Trent","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7361343"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rolls_royce_rb_50_trent_7361343"},{"id":"w_junkers_ju_287_685912","name":"Junkers Ju 287","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Prototype German bomber. The Junkers Ju 287 jet bomber is tested.","verdict":"Compete: The forward-swept-wing Ju 287 tested a configuration later revisited by the Grumman X-29.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Junkers_Ju_287","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q685912"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_junkers_ju_287_685912"},{"id":"w_allison_j35_478153","name":"Allison J35","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1946 USAF's first axial-flow compressor engine. The J35, a development of an earlier turboprop effort, runs for the first time.","verdict":"Advance: The first US axial-flow jet engine in service.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Allison_J35","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q478153"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_allison_j35_478153"},{"id":"w_ishikawajima_ne_20_512439","name":"Ishikawajima Ne-20","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First Japanese turbojet engine developed to power the Nakajima Kikka. The Ishikawajima Ne-20 first runs in Japan.","verdict":"Advance: Ishikawajima's Ne-20, copied from BMW 003 drawings, flew Japan's first jet in 1945.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ishikawajima_Ne-20","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q512439"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ishikawajima_ne_20_512439"},{"id":"w_leduc_0_10_3228825","name":"Leduc 0.10","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First aircraft flying with a ramjet engine.","verdict":"Advance: René Leduc's 0.10 flew on ramjet power in 1949, proving ramjets for aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Leduc_0.10","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3228825"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_leduc_0_10_3228825"},{"id":"w_heinkel_he_162_156878","name":"Heinkel He 162","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Interceptor aircraft. A design competition starts in Germany to build a simple jet fighter, the Volksjäger. The contract is eventually won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz (sparrow), to be powered by the BMW 003.","verdict":"Compete: The He 162 Volksjäger went from drawing board to flight in 90 days in 1944, a desperate cheap jet built by forced labour.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_162_Volksj%C3%A4ger","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q156878"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_heinkel_he_162_156878"},{"id":"w_rb_41_nene_639668","name":"RB.41 Nene","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1944 turbojet engine family by Rolls-Royce. October 27 - After a short 6-month period Rolls-Royce designs and builds the Rolls-Royce Nene at 5,000 lbf (22 kN), but it sees only limited use in the United Kingdom, and is first run on this date.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Nene (1944), sold to the USSR in 1946, powered the MiG-15 that challenged the US in Korea.","dependencies":["w_rb_37_derwent_1422633"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Nene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q639668"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rb_41_nene_639668"},{"id":"w_nakajima_kikka_534773","name":"Nakajima Kikka","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1945 attack aircraft prototype by Nakajima; first jet aircraft built in Japan. The Nakajima Kikka flies for the first time on August 7, 1945, powered by two Ishikawajima Ne-20 turbojets, making it the first Japanese jet aircraft to fly.","verdict":"Advance: Nakajima's Kikka flew once in August 1945, Japan's first jet.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nakajima_Kikka","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q534773"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nakajima_kikka_534773"},{"id":"w_afterburner_29426","name":"Afterburner","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Component on some jet engines. An afterburner equipped Jumo 004 is tested.","verdict":"Compete: Burns extra fuel for thrust; made supersonic fighters practical.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Afterburner","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29426"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_afterburner_29426"},{"id":"w_rolls_royce_clyde_7361318","name":"Rolls-Royce Clyde","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1940s British turboprop aircraft engine. The RB.39 Rolls-Royce Clyde turboprop runs, combining axial and centrifugal stages in the compressor. Rolls-Royce abandon development, preferring to focus on the turbojet.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Clyde (1945) was the first turboprop to pass type tests.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Clyde","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7361318"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rolls_royce_clyde_7361318"},{"id":"w_rb_53_dart_450478","name":"RB.53 Dart","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1946 turboprop engine family by Rolls-Royce. Development of the Rolls-Royce Dart starts. The Dart would go on to become one of the most popular turboprop engines made, with over 7,000 being produced before the production lines finally shut down in 1990.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Dart (1946) powered the Viscount, the first turboprop airliner, and stayed in production for 40 years.","dependencies":["w_turboprop_309027"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Dart","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q450478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rb_53_dart_450478"},{"id":"w_rb_80_conway_284143","name":"RB.80 Conway","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1952 turbofan engine family by Rolls-Royce. late 1950: Rolls-Royce Conway the world's first production turbofan enters service, significantly improving fuel efficiency and paving the way for further improvements.","verdict":"Advance: Rolls-Royce's Conway (1952) was the first production turbofan, saving fuel on the 707 and VC10.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rolls-Royce_Conway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284143"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rb_80_conway_284143"},{"id":"w_de_havilland_gyron_5106178","name":"De Havilland Gyron","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"1950s British turbojet aircraft engine. The de Havilland Gyron, Halford's last jet design, runs for the first time. Before cancellation 2 years later it has evolved to 25,000 lbf (110,000 N) using reheat.","verdict":"Advance: De Havilland's Gyron (1953) was a powerful turbojet that informed the Olympus engine used on Concorde.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Gyron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5106178"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_de_havilland_gyron_5106178"},{"id":"w_boeing_707_6394","name":"Boeing 707","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"1957 airliner family. First flight of the Boeing 707 – First commercially successful jet airliner.","verdict":"Advance: Boeing's 707 (1958 service) made jet travel common, beginning the era of mass international aviation.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boeing_707","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6394"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_boeing_707_6394"},{"id":"w_sud_aviation_caravelle_6503","name":"Sud Aviation Caravelle","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"French twin-jet narrow-body airliner produced 1958–1972. Sud Aviation Caravelle enters service: claimed as the first short/medium range jet airliner, first flight 27 May 1955.","verdict":"Advance: The Sud Aviation Caravelle (1959) pioneered rear-mounted engines on a short-haul jet airliner.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sud_Aviation_Caravelle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6503"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sud_aviation_caravelle_6503"},{"id":"w_nasa_x_43_836296","name":"NASA X-43","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Unmanned experimental hypersonic aircraft. Hyper-X first scramjet to maintain altitude","verdict":"Advance: NASA's X-43A flew at Mach 9.6 in 2004, the fastest air-breathing aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NASA_X-43","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_jet_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836296"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nasa_x_43_836296"},{"id":"w_argand_lamp_2284982","name":"Argand lamp","year":1780,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of oil lamp. 1780 – Ami Argand invents the central draught fixed oil lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Brighter, cleaner oil lamp.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Argand_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2284982"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_argand_lamp_2284982"},{"id":"w_carcel_burner_2474235","name":"Carcel burner","year":1800,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Oil lamp with a clockwork pump mechanism. 1800 – French watchmaker Bertrand Guillaume Carcel [ fr ] overcomes the disadvantages of the Argand-type lamps with his clockwork-fed Carcel lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Bertrand Carcel's 1800 clockwork oil pump lamp gave bright, steady light and was used as a French photometric standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcel_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2474235"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_carcel_burner_2474235"},{"id":"w_electric_arc_207456","name":"Electric arc","year":1802,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electrical breakdown of a gas that produces an ongoing electrical discharge. 1802 – Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov developed the first persistent electric arc.","verdict":"Advance: Vasily Petrov's 1802 continuous arc, using a giant battery, led to arc lamps, arc welding and electric furnaces.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_arc","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207456"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electric_arc_207456"},{"id":"w_davy_lamp_902796","name":"Davy lamp","year":1815,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Safety lamp for use in flammable atmospheres. 1815 – Humphry Davy invents the miner's safety lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Humphry Davy's 1815 wire-gauze lamp contained flames in gassy mines, though it encouraged deeper mining and is a famous lesson in risk compensation.","dependencies":["w_safety_lamp_371150"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Davy_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902796"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_davy_lamp_902796"},{"id":"w_electric_light_1326621","name":"Electric light","year":1835,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any device that produces light from electricity. 1835 – James Bowman Lindsay demonstrates a light bulb based electric lighting system to the citizens of Dundee.","verdict":"Advance: James Bowman Lindsay's 1835 electric lamp anticipated Edison's 1879 bulb, which ultimately extended human working hours and safety.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_light","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1326621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electric_light_1326621"},{"id":"w_gas_mantle_781080","name":"Gas mantle","year":1885,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device for generating bright light when heated by a flame. c. 1885 – Incandescent gas mantle invented, revolutionises gas lighting.","verdict":"Advance: Carl Auer von Welsbach's 1885 thorium mantle made gas light six times brighter, prolonging the gas era and lighting camp lanterns today.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas_mantle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q781080"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gas_mantle_781080"},{"id":"w_nernst_lamp_723561","name":"Nernst lamp","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early form of incandescent lamp. 1897 – Walther Nernst invents and patents his incandescent lamp, based on solid state electrolytes.","verdict":"Advance: Walther Nernst's 1897 ceramic-rod lamp gave efficient white light, an influence on the infrared sources used in spectroscopy.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nernst_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q723561"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nernst_lamp_723561"},{"id":"w_carbide_lamp_606683","name":"Carbide lamp","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Acetylene-burning lamps. 1900 – Frederick Baldwin patents a carbide lamp for use on bicycles. The invention builds on acetylene lamps from the 1890s.","verdict":"Advance: Calcium carbide plus water made acetylene light for miners and bicycles, still used in caving.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carbide_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q606683"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_carbide_lamp_606683"},{"id":"w_mercury_vapor_lamp_370387","name":"Mercury-vapor lamp","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electric lighting source. 1901 – Peter Cooper Hewitt creates the first commercial mercury-vapor lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Peter Cooper Hewitt's 1901 mercury lamp gave efficient blue-green light for streets and photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mercury-vapor_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370387"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_mercury_vapor_lamp_370387"},{"id":"w_neon_lighting_12177156","name":"Neon lighting","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lighting apparatus, electrifies rarefied neon in a sealed tube. 1910 – Georges Claude demonstrates neon lighting at the Paris Motor Show.","verdict":"Advance: Georges Claude's 1910 neon tubes lit Paris signs, transforming advertising and nightlife.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neon_lighting","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12177156"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_neon_lighting_12177156"},{"id":"w_metal_halide_lamp_853887","name":"Metal-halide lamp","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of lamp. 1912 – Charles P. Steinmetz invents the metal-halide lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Steinmetz's early metal-halide lamp became, in the 1960s, the bright light used in stadiums and streets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metal-halide_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853887"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_metal_halide_lamp_853887"},{"id":"w_inert_gas_11136680","name":"Inert gas","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gas which does not undergo chemical reactions under given conditions. 1913 – Irving Langmuir discovers that inert gas could double the luminous efficacy of incandescent lightbulbs.","verdict":"Advance: Irving Langmuir's 1913 argon-filled bulb lasted longer than vacuum lamps; inert gases now shield welds and chips.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inert_gas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11136680"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_inert_gas_11136680"},{"id":"w_sodium_vapor_lamp_743231","name":"Sodium-vapor lamp","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of lamp used for lighting. 1920 – Arthur Compton invents the sodium-vapor lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Arthur Compton's 1920 sodium lamp became the efficient orange streetlight of the 20th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sodium-vapor_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q743231"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_sodium_vapor_lamp_743231"},{"id":"w_halogen_lamp_1114190","name":"Halogen lamp","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Incandescent lamp variety. 1953 – Elmer Fridrich invents the halogen lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Elmer Fridrich's 1955 halogen lamp regenerated its filament, brighter and longer-lived than standard bulbs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Halogen_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1114190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_halogen_lamp_1114190"},{"id":"w_electroluminescence_215803","name":"Electroluminescence","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"An optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field. 1953 – André Bernanose and several colleagues observe electroluminescence in organic materials.","verdict":"Advance: Electroluminescence, light from current in a solid, led to LEDs in 1962 and later OLED displays.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electroluminescence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215803"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electroluminescence_215803"},{"id":"w_sulfur_lamp_1753208","name":"Sulfur lamp","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lighting system. 1990 – Michael Ury, Charles Wood, and several colleagues develop the sulfur lamp.","verdict":"Advance: Fusion Lighting's 1990 sulphur plasma lamp gave sunlike light with no electrodes, but costs kept it a niche.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sulfur_lamp","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1753208"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_sulfur_lamp_1753208"},{"id":"w_led_filament_bulb_19599475","name":"LED filament bulb","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"LED lamp which is designed to resemble a traditional incandescent light bulb with visible filaments. 2008 – Ushio Lighting demonstrates the first LED filament.","verdict":"Advance: Ushio's 2008 LED filament bulb mimics the look of incandescents at a tenth of the energy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LED_filament","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_lighting_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19599475"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_led_filament_bulb_19599475"},{"id":"w_bayesian_inference_812535","name":"Bayesian inference","year":1763,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of statistical inference in which Bayes' theorem is used to update the probability for a hypothesis as more evidence or information becomes available. Bayesian methods are introduced for probabilistic inference in machine learning.","verdict":"Advance: Bayes's 1763 theorem, generalized by Laplace, gives a method for updating beliefs, now central to machine learning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bayesian_inference","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q812535"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bayesian_inference_812535"},{"id":"w_kernel_method_620622","name":"Kernel method","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Class of algorithms for pattern analysis. Support-Vector Clustering and other kernel methods and unsupervised machine learning methods become widespread.","verdict":"Advance: Kernel methods (1990s) let linear algorithms find nonlinear patterns, as in SVMs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kernel_method","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620622"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kernel_method_620622"},{"id":"w_generative_artificial_intelligence_117246174","name":"Generative artificial intelligence","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial intelligence model capable of generating content in response to a prompt. Generative AI leads to revolutionary models, creating a proliferation of foundation models, both proprietary and open source, notably enabling products such as advanced chatbots and text to image models.","verdict":"Advance: Generative AI, from GPT-3 (2020) to diffusion models, creates text, images and code on demand.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_AI","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117246174"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_generative_artificial_intelligence_117246174"},{"id":"w_least_squares_method_74304","name":"Least squares method","year":1805,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Approximation method in statistics. Publication Least squares Adrien-Marie Legendre publishes the least squares method in Nouvelles méthodes pour la détermination des orbites des comètes, presenting a method for estimating quantities from observations.","verdict":"Advance: Legendre's 1805 least squares, also used by Gauss, fits models to data in every science.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Least_squares","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q74304"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_least_squares_method_74304"},{"id":"w_transfer_learning_6027324","name":"Transfer learning","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Research problem in machine learning (ML) that focuses on storing knowledge gained while solving one problem and applying it to a different but related problem. Research Transfer learning in neural networks Stevo Bozinovski and Ante Fulgosi investigate transfer learning in neural networks, examining how training on one task can affect learning on another.","verdict":"Advance: Bozinovski and Fulgosi's 1976 transfer learning reused knowledge from one task in another, now used in foundation models.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transfer_learning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6027324"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_transfer_learning_6027324"},{"id":"w_neocognitron_669754","name":"Neocognitron","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of artificial neural network. Model introduction Neocognitron Kunihiko Fukushima proposes the neocognitron, a multilayer neural network designed to recognize patterns despite changes in their position. An English-language account is published in 1980.","verdict":"Advance: Kunihiko Fukushima's 1979 neocognitron introduced hierarchical feature detection, a precursor of convolutional networks.","dependencies":["w_artificial_neural_network_192776"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neocognitron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q669754"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_neocognitron_669754"},{"id":"w_recurrent_neural_network_1457734","name":"Recurrent neural network","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Class of artificial neural network where connections between units form a directed graph along a temporal sequence. Model introduction Hopfield networks John Hopfield describes a recurrent neural network that can function as a content-addressable memory. The model becomes known as the Hopfield network.","verdict":"Advance: John Hopfield's 1982 network and later RNNs model sequences, leading to LSTMs.","dependencies":["w_artificial_neural_network_192776"],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Recurrent_neural_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1457734"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_recurrent_neural_network_1457734"},{"id":"w_inverted_pendulum_550134","name":"Inverted pendulum","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pendulum with center of mass above pivot. Research Crossbar Adaptive Array Stevo Bozinovski reports a self-learning system using secondary reinforcement.","verdict":"Advance: Balancing an inverted pendulum became the benchmark for learning controllers; Bozinovski's 1982 self-learning array is an early reinforcement-learning result.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inverted_pendulum","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q550134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_inverted_pendulum_550134"},{"id":"w_universal_approximation_theorem_7894110","name":"Universal approximation theorem","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem that a feed-forward network with a single hidden layer can approximate continuous functions.","verdict":"Advance: Cybenko and Hornik's 1989 theorem proves neural networks can approximate any continuous function.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Universal_approximation_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7894110"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_universal_approximation_theorem_7894110"},{"id":"w_q_learning_2664563","name":"Q-learning","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Model-free reinforcement learning algorithm. Algorithm introduction Q-learning Christopher Watkins introduces Q-learning in his doctoral thesis, Learning from Delayed Rewards, as a method of reinforcement learning.","verdict":"Advance: Christopher Watkins's 1989 Q-learning lets agents learn without a model, used in DeepMind's Atari player.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Q-learning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2664563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_q_learning_2664563"},{"id":"w_ensemble_learning_245652","name":"Ensemble learning","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In machine learning, the use of multiple algorithms to obtain better predictive performance than from any of the constituent learning algorithms alone. Algorithm introduction Random decision forests Tin Kam Ho publishes \"Random decision forests\", describing an ensemble method that combines multiple decision tree classifiers.","verdict":"Advance: Ensemble learning (1990s) combines models to beat any single one, dominating competitions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ensemble_learning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ensemble_learning_245652"},{"id":"w_torch_17087180","name":"Torch","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Deep learning software. Software development Torch Ronan Collobert, Samy Bengio, and Johnny Mariéthoz describe Torch, a modular software library for machine learning.","verdict":"Advance: Torch (2002) became a leading deep-learning library and the direct ancestor of PyTorch.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Torch_(machine_learning)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17087180"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_torch_17087180"},{"id":"w_watson_12253","name":"Watson","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Artificial intelligence computer system made by IBM.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's Watson won Jeopardy! in 2011, showing natural-language question answering at scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_Watson","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_watson_12253"},{"id":"w_gpt_4_116709136","name":"GPT-4","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of artificial intelligence models developed by OpenAI. Model introduction GPT-4 OpenAI introduces GPT-4, describing it as a multimodal model capable of accepting text and image inputs and generating text outputs.","verdict":"Advance: OpenAI's GPT-4 (2023) passed professional exams and set a new bar for large language models.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GPT-4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_machine_learning","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116709136"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_gpt_4_116709136"},{"id":"w_1st_millennium_bc_25716","name":"Pewter","year":-500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Millennium between 1000 BC and 1 BC. 1st millennium BC – Pewter beginning to be used in China and Egypt","verdict":"Advance: A tin alloy for tableware and vessels; a modest metallurgy step.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/1st_millennium_BC","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25716"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_1st_millennium_bc_25716"},{"id":"w_stoneware_830894","name":"Stoneware","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay. 9th century – Stonepaste ceramics invented in Iraq","verdict":"Advance: High-fired stoneware from Tang and Song kilns made non-porous, strong vessels for storage and trade.","dependencies":["w_ceramic_45621"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stoneware","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830894"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_stoneware_830894"},{"id":"w_type_metal_794304","name":"Type metal","year":1448,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Metal alloys used in traditional typefounding and hot metal typesetting. 1448 – Johann Gutenberg develops type metal alloy","verdict":"Advance: Gutenberg's lead–tin–antimony alloy cast sharp, durable movable type that barely shrank, making mass printing practical.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Type_metal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q794304"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_type_metal_794304"},{"id":"w_lens_768575","name":"Lens","year":1249,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Optical device which transmits and refracts light. 1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness","verdict":"Advance: Roger Bacon's 1267 discussion of lenses for reading anticipated spectacles invented in Italy around 1286.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q768575"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lens_768575"},{"id":"w_crucible_steel_2823346","name":"Crucible steel","year":1740,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of steel. 1740 – Crucible steel technique developed by Benjamin Huntsman","verdict":"Advance: Benjamin Huntsman's 1740 crucible steel was uniform enough for springs and Sheffield cutlery, the first high-quality cast steel in Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Crucible_steel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2823346"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_crucible_steel_2823346"},{"id":"w_stucco_33526","name":"Stucco","year":1779,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. 1779 – Hydraulic cement ( stucco ) patented by Bryan Higgins for use as an exterior plaster","verdict":"Advance: Bryan Higgins' 1779 hydraulic stucco cement was an early patent for render that sets damp, a step on the road to Portland cement.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stucco","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33526"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_stucco_33526"},{"id":"w_thermocouple_190241","name":"Thermocouple","year":1821,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thermoelectric device. 1821 – Thermocouple invented by Thomas Johann Seebeck","verdict":"Advance: Seebeck's junction of two metals became the thermocouple, the cheap, rugged temperature sensor used across industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermocouple","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190241"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_thermocouple_190241"},{"id":"w_exothermic_welding_910714","name":"Exothermic welding","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Welding process that uses thermite to create exothermic reaction to heat up the metal, and the molten metal joins two or more metal pieces together. 1893 – Thermite Welding developed and soon used to weld rails","verdict":"Advance: Hans Goldschmidt's 1893 thermite reaction made molten iron for welding rails on site, and it is still used for continuous track.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exothermic_welding","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q910714"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_exothermic_welding_910714"},{"id":"w_pyrex_2637631","name":"Pyrex","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Trademark originally used for borosilicate glass. 1924 – Pyrex invented by scientists at Corning Incorporated, a glass with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion","verdict":"Advance: Corning's 1915 borosilicate glass withstood thermal shock, becoming the standard for lab glassware and ovenware.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrex","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2637631"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1994)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_pyrex_2637631"},{"id":"w_natural_rubber_131877","name":"Natural rubber","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds; refined from latex harvested from rubber trees. 1931 – synthetic rubber called neoprene developed by Julius Nieuwland ( see also: E.K. Bolton, Wallace Carothers )","verdict":"Advance: Latex from Amazonian Hevea, smuggled to Asian plantations in 1876, became a strategic commodity of the motor age.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Natural_rubber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_natural_rubber_131877"},{"id":"w_langmuir_blodgett_film_253790","name":"Langmuir–Blodgett film","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thin film obtained by depositing multiple monolayers onto a surface. 1935 – Langmuir–Blodgett film coating of glass was developed by Katharine Burr Blodgett, creating \"invisible glass\" which is >99% transmissive","verdict":"Advance: Katharine Blodgett's 1935 monolayer films made non-reflective glass and are now used in sensor and nano-device research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Langmuir%E2%80%93Blodgett_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q253790"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_langmuir_blodgett_film_253790"},{"id":"w_point_contact_transistor_1515631","name":"Point-contact transistor","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First type of solid-state electronic transistor ever constructed. 1947 – First germanium point-contact transistor invented","verdict":"Advance: Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley's 1947 point-contact transistor at Bell Labs began solid-state electronics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Point-contact_transistor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1515631"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_point_contact_transistor_1515631"},{"id":"w_piezoelectricity_183759","name":"Piezoelectricity","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electric charge generated in certain solids due to mechanical stress. 1880: Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie: Piezoelectricity.","verdict":"Advance: Pierre and Jacques Curie's 1880 piezoelectricity is used in quartz watches, sonar and ultrasound.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Piezoelectricity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183759"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_piezoelectricity_183759"},{"id":"w_catalysis_82264","name":"Catalysis","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction. 1953 – Metallic catalysts which greatly improve the strength of polyethylene polymers discovered by Karl Ziegler","verdict":"Advance: Karl Ziegler's 1953 organometallic catalysts polymerized ethylene at low pressure, enabling cheap high-density plastics (Nobel 1963).","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catalysis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82264"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_catalysis_82264"},{"id":"w_argon_oxygen_decarburization_295905","name":"Argon oxygen decarburization","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process in stainless steel making. 1954 – Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) refining invented by scientists at the Union Carbide Corporation","verdict":"Advance: Cheap stainless-steel refining.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Argon_oxygen_decarburization","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q295905"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_argon_oxygen_decarburization_295905"},{"id":"w_squid_746502","name":"SQUID","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Very sensitive superconducting magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields. 1962 – SQUID superconducting quantum interference device invented","verdict":"Advance: The 1964 SQUID, based on Josephson's 1962 effect, detects magnetic fields from the human brain.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SQUID","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q746502"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_squid_746502"},{"id":"w_duplex_stainless_steel_1266528","name":"Duplex stainless steel","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stainless steel with an austeno-ferritic microstructure. 1980 – Duplex stainless steels developed which resist oxidation in chlorides","verdict":"Advance: Austenite–ferrite duplex steels resist chloride cracking at twice the strength of ordinary stainless, used in offshore platforms and pipelines.","dependencies":["w_stainless_steel_172587"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Duplex_stainless_steel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1266528"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_duplex_stainless_steel_1266528"},{"id":"w_fullerene_178026","name":"Fullerene","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Class of allotropes of carbon. 1985 – The first fullerene molecule discovered by scientists at Rice University ( see also: Timeline of carbon nanotubes )","verdict":"Advance: Kroto, Curl and Smalley's 1985 C60 buckyball opened carbon nanoscience (Nobel 1996).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fullerene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_materials_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178026"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_fullerene_178026"},{"id":"w_middle_paleolithic_626270","name":"Middle Paleolithic","year":-70000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Archaeological period. ca. 70,000 BC – South Africa, ochre rocks adorned with scratched geometric patterns (see Blombos Cave ).","verdict":"Advance: The Levallois prepared-core era; standardized flake tools from planned stone working.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Middle_Paleolithic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626270"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_middle_paleolithic_626270"},{"id":"w_yajurveda_47142","name":"Yajurveda","year":-750,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals. c. 8th century BC – the Yajurveda, one of the four Hindu Vedas, contains the earliest concept of infinity and states, \"If you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity.\"","verdict":"Advance: The Yajurveda codified the prose formulas for Vedic sacrifice, and the precise altar geometry that ritual demanded fed into the Śulba Sūtras' early mathematics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yajurveda","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47142"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_yajurveda_47142"},{"id":"w_pythagorean_triple_208225","name":"Pythagorean triple","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Three positive integers, the squares of two of which sum to the square of the third. c. 600 BC – India, the other Vedic \"Shulba Sutras\" (\"rule of chords\" in Sanskrit ) use Pythagorean triples, contain a number of geometrical proofs, and approximate π at 3.16.","verdict":"Advance: Pythagorean triples appear in Babylonian Plimpton 322 and the Indian Śulba Sūtras, used for right angles in altars and buildings.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pythagorean_triple","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208225"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pythagorean_triple_208225"},{"id":"w_luoshu_square_2482835","name":"Luoshu Square","year":-500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chinese name for a specific 3×3 magic square occurring in legendary accounts of the creation of Chinese writing and culture. second half of 1st millennium BC – The Luoshu Square, the unique normal magic square of order three, was discovered in China.","verdict":"Advance: The Luoshu magic square, from Chinese legend, became a symbol in feng shui and numerology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Luoshu_Square","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2482835"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_luoshu_square_2482835"},{"id":"w_infinite_set_205140","name":"Infinite set","year":-400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set with infinite cardinality. c. 400 BC – India, write the Surya Prajnapti, a mathematical text classifying all numbers into three sets: enumerable, innumerable, and infinite.","verdict":"Advance: Jain texts like the Surya Prajnapti classified infinities, an early study of different infinite sizes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Infinite_set","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205140"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_infinite_set_205140"},{"id":"w_combination_202805","name":"Combination","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Way of selecting things out of a group where order does not matter. 300 BC – India, Bhagavati Sutra, which contains the earliest information on combinations.","verdict":"Advance: The Jain Bhagavati Sutra counted combinations, an early contribution to combinatorics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Combination","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202805"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_combination_202805"},{"id":"w_brahmi_numerals_430595","name":"Brahmi numerals","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Numeral system predating modern Hindu-Arabic numerals. c. 300 BC – India, Brahmi numerals (ancestor of the common modern base 10 numeral system )","verdict":"Advance: Brahmi numerals (c. 300 BCE) evolved into Hindu-Arabic digits now used worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brahmi_numerals","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q430595"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_brahmi_numerals_430595"},{"id":"w_olmecas_135364","name":"Olmecs","year":-1500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mesoamerican civilization. c. 250 BC – late Olmecs had already begun to use a true zero (a shell glyph) several centuries before Ptolemy in the New World. See 0 (number).","verdict":"Advance: Mesoamerica's first complex society: monumental building, calendars and early writing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Olmecs","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135364"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_olmecas_135364"},{"id":"w_sieve_of_eratosthenes_177898","name":"Sieve of Eratosthenes","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Ancient algorithm for generating prime numbers. 3rd century BC: Eratosthenes discovers the Sieve of Eratosthenes.","verdict":"Advance: Eratosthenes' sieve lists primes by striking out multiples, and still teaches computational efficiency.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sieve_of_Eratosthenes","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_sieve_of_eratosthenes_177898"},{"id":"w_gaussian_elimination_2658","name":"Gaussian elimination","year":-150,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for solving systems of linear equations. 150 BC – China, A method of Gaussian elimination appears in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.","verdict":"Advance: Elimination on counting boards, recorded in the Nine Chapters (c. 150 BCE), solved linear systems nearly 2,000 years before Gauss.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gaussian_elimination","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2658"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gaussian_elimination_2658"},{"id":"w_horner_s_method_944658","name":"Horner's method","year":-150,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for polynomial evaluation. 150 BC – China, Horner's method appears in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese mathematicians used Horner-style evaluation for polynomials long before Horner's 1819 paper.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horner's_method","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944658"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_horner_s_method_944658"},{"id":"w_negative_real_number_200227","name":"Negative real number","year":-150,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Real number that is strictly less than zero. 150 BC – China, negative numbers appear in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.","verdict":"Advance: Red rods for positive and black for negative handled negative numbers centuries before Europe accepted them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Negative_number","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200227"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_negative_real_number_200227"},{"id":"w_vedanga_jyotisha_404199","name":"Vedanga Jyotisha","year":-500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Work. final centuries BC – Indian astronomer Lagadha writes the Vedanga Jyotisha, a Vedic text on astronomy that describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon and uses geometry and trigonometry for astronomy.","verdict":"Advance: Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha set Indian calendar and ritual timing by astronomy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vedanga_Jyotisha","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q404199"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vedanga_jyotisha_404199"},{"id":"w_bakhshali_manuscript_115690","name":"Bakhshali manuscript","year":400,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Group of mathematical manuscripts including an early use of the positional zero. c.","verdict":"Advance: The Bakhshali manuscript (c. 3rd–7th century) uses a dot for zero, an early positional zero.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bakhshali_manuscript","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115690"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bakhshali_manuscript_115690"},{"id":"w_chinese_remainder_theorem_193878","name":"Chinese remainder theorem","year":300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem for solving simultaneous congruences. 300–500—The Chinese remainder theorem is developed by Sun Tzu.","verdict":"Advance: Sunzi's Chinese remainder theorem (3rd–5th century) solves simultaneous congruences, used in modern cryptography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chinese_remainder_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193878"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chinese_remainder_theorem_193878"},{"id":"w_rod_calculus_2135255","name":"Rod calculus","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Calculating method used in ancient China. 300–500—In China, a description of rod calculus is written by Sun Tzu.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese counting rods enabled decimal arithmetic and equation solving, as recorded in the Nine Chapters.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rod_calculus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2135255"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_rod_calculus_2135255"},{"id":"w_positional_notation_1747853","name":"Positional notation","year":550,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method for representing or encoding numbers. 550— Hindu mathematicians give zero a numeral representation in the positional notation Indian numeral system.","verdict":"Advance: Indian mathematicians' place-value system with zero, transmitted by al-Khwarizmi, made modern arithmetic possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Positional_notation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1747853"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_positional_notation_1747853"},{"id":"w_zero_of_a_function_214604","name":"Zero of a function","year":940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Element of the domain where function's value is zero. 940—Iran, Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani extracts roots using the Indian numeral system.","verdict":"Advance: Abu al-Wafa's root-finding methods advanced numerical computation in the 10th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zero_of_a_function","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214604"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_zero_of_a_function_214604"},{"id":"w_monomial_243723","name":"Monomial","year":953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polynomial which has only one term. 953—Persia, Al-Karaji is the \"first person to completely free algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations that are at the core of algebra today.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Karaji (c. 1000) freed algebra from geometry, working with polynomials and induction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Monomial","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q243723"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_monomial_243723"},{"id":"w_parabola_48297","name":"Parabola","year":1020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Plane curve: symmetrical conic section. 1020 – Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani gave the formula: sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α. Also discussed the quadrature of the parabola and the volume of the paraboloid.","verdict":"Advance: Abu al-Wafa's trigonometric identities (10th century) simplified astronomical calculations.","dependencies":["w_conic_section_124255"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parabola","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_parabola_48297"},{"id":"w_power_series_206925","name":"Power series","year":1350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Infinite sum of monomials. 14th century – Madhava discovers the power series expansion for sin ⁡ x {\\displaystyle \\sin x}, cos ⁡ x {\\displaystyle \\cos x}, arctan ⁡ x {\\displaystyle \\arctan x} and π / 4 {\\displaystyle \\pi /4} This theory is now well known in the…","verdict":"Advance: Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1400) found power series for sine and cosine, three centuries before Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Power_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206925"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_power_series_206925"},{"id":"w_quartic_equation_476776","name":"Quartic equation","year":1540,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polynomial equation of degree four. 1540— Lodovico Ferrari solves the quartic equation.","verdict":"Advance: Lodovico Ferrari solved the quartic in 1540, published in Cardano's Ars Magna (1545).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quartic_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476776"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quartic_equation_476776"},{"id":"w_cycloid_204072","name":"Cycloid","year":1634,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Curve traced by a point on a circle as it rolls along a straight line without slipping. 1634— Gilles de Roberval shows that the area under a cycloid is three times the area of its generating circle.","verdict":"Advance: Roberval's cycloid studies (1634) led to the brachistochrone and tautochrone problems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cycloid","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204072"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cycloid_204072"},{"id":"w_amicable_numbers_117927","name":"Amicable numbers","year":826,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pair of integers related by their divisors. 826 – 901: Thabit ibn Qurra (Latinized: Thebit.) studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the Banu Musa brothers. Discovered a theorem that enables pairs of amicable numbers to be found. [ citation needed ] Later, al-Baghdadi (b.","verdict":"Advance: Thabit ibn Qurra's rule for amicable pairs; early number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amicable_numbers","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117927"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_amicable_numbers_117927"},{"id":"w_descartes_theorem_1196538","name":"Descartes' theorem","year":1643,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. 1643—René Descartes develops Descartes' theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Descartes' 1643 circle theorem relates curvatures of four touching circles, used in Apollonian gaskets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes%27s_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1196538"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_descartes_theorem_1196538"},{"id":"w_probability_9492","name":"Probability","year":1654,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Measure of the expectation that an event will occur or a statement is true. 1654— Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat create the theory of probability.","verdict":"Advance: Pascal and Fermat's 1654 letters founded probability theory, now used in insurance, physics and machine learning.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Probability","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9492"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_probability_9492"},{"id":"w_fundamental_theorem_of_calculus_1217677","name":"Fundamental theorem of calculus","year":1665,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Calculus theorem describing the duality of differentiation and integration. 1665— Isaac Newton works on the fundamental theorem of calculus and develops his version of infinitesimal calculus.","verdict":"Advance: Newton and Leibniz linked derivatives and integrals in the 1660s–70s, which made calculus a working tool.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1217677"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fundamental_theorem_of_calculus_1217677"},{"id":"w_taylor_s_theorem_1137206","name":"Taylor's theorem","year":1671,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Approximation of a function by a truncated power series. 1671—James Gregory discovers Taylor's theorem.","verdict":"Advance: James Gregory's 1671 series expansions anticipated Taylor's theorem, the basis of numerical approximation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taylor's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137206"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_taylor_s_theorem_1137206"},{"id":"w_resultant_1168321","name":"Resultant","year":1683,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Polynomial expression of the coefficients of two polynomials, which is equal to zero if and only if the polynomials have a common root. 1683— Seki Takakazu discovers the resultant and determinant.","verdict":"Advance: Seki Takakazu and Leibniz's resultants (1683) test whether polynomials share a root, used in computer algebra.","dependencies":["seki_kowa"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Resultant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1168321"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_resultant_1168321"},{"id":"w_differential_equation_11214","name":"Differential equation","year":1691,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Mathematical equation involving derivatives of an unknown function. 1691—Gottfried Leibniz discovers the technique of separation of variables for ordinary differential equations.","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz and the Bernoullis solved differential equations in the 1690s, the language of physics and engineering.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Differential_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11214"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_differential_equation_11214"},{"id":"w_l_h_pital_s_rule_190557","name":"L'Hôpital's rule","year":1696,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rule that uses derivatives to help evaluate limits involving indeterminate forms. 1696— Guillaume de l'Hôpital states his rule for the computation of certain limits.","verdict":"Advance: L'Hôpital's 1696 textbook, using Bernoulli's rule, popularized calculus for evaluating limits.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/L'H%C3%B4pital's_rule","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190557"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_l_h_pital_s_rule_190557"},{"id":"w_taylor_series_131187","name":"Taylor series","year":1380,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Expression of a function as an infinite sum. 1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama develops the Taylor series, and derives the Taylor series representation for the sine, cosine and arctangent functions, and uses it to produce the Leibniz series for π.","verdict":"Advance: Madhava's series anticipated Taylor's 1715 general expansion, now used to approximate functions.","dependencies":["w_power_series_206925"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taylor_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_taylor_series_131187"},{"id":"w_richardson_extrapolation_1063089","name":"Richardson extrapolation","year":1722,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A sequence acceleration method, used to improve the rate of convergence. 1722— Takebe Kenko introduces Richardson extrapolation.","verdict":"Advance: Takebe Kenkō's 1722 extrapolation accelerated convergence, anticipating Richardson's method.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Richardson_extrapolation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1063089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_richardson_extrapolation_1063089"},{"id":"w_normal_distribution_133871","name":"Normal distribution","year":1733,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Probability distribution. 1733—Abraham de Moivre introduces the normal distribution to approximate the binomial distribution in probability.","verdict":"Advance: De Moivre's 1733 normal curve, later developed by Gauss, became the central distribution of statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Normal_distribution","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133871"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_normal_distribution_133871"},{"id":"w_integrating_factor_2734005","name":"Integrating factor","year":1734,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Function that is commonly used to solve ordinary differential equations. 1734— Leonhard Euler introduces the integrating factor technique for solving first-order ordinary differential equations.","verdict":"Advance: Euler's integrating factors 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topology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seven_Bridges_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33100"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_seven_bridges_of_k_nigsberg_33100"},{"id":"w_homogeneous_differential_equation_2434565","name":"Homogeneous differential equation","year":1739,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical relation with derivatives. 1739—Leonhard Euler solves the general homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients.","verdict":"Advance: Euler solved homogeneous linear differential equations in 1739, a standard method in engineering.","dependencies":["w_differential_equation_11214"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Homogeneous_differential_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2434565"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_homogeneous_differential_equation_2434565"},{"id":"w_goldbach_s_conjecture_485520","name":"Goldbach's conjecture","year":1742,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Conjecture that every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two primes. 1742— Christian Goldbach conjectures that every even number greater than two can be expressed as the sum of two primes, now known as Goldbach's conjecture.","verdict":"Advance: Goldbach's 1742 conjecture that even numbers are sums of two primes remains unproven though checked to 4×10¹⁸.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Goldbach's_conjecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485520"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_goldbach_s_conjecture_485520"},{"id":"w_d_alembert_s_formula_2388753","name":"D'Alembert's formula","year":1747,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical solution. 1747— Jean le Rond d'Alembert solves the vibrating string problem (one-dimensional wave equation ).","verdict":"Advance: D'Alembert's 1747 solution of the wave equation launched the theory of partial differential equations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/D'Alembert's_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2388753"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_d_alembert_s_formula_2388753"},{"id":"w_bayes_theorem_182505","name":"Bayes' theorem","year":1761,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Theorem describing the probability of an event based on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event. 1761— Thomas Bayes proves Bayes' theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Thomas Bayes's 1763 theorem gives a rule for updating probability, now used 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divergence theorem relates flux to divergence, central to electromagnetism.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Divergence_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q338886"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_divergence_theorem_338886"},{"id":"w_prime_number_theorem_386292","name":"Prime number theorem","year":1796,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem in number theory. 1796— Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectures the prime number theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Legendre and Gauss's prime number theorem conjecture (1790s), proved in 1896, describes prime 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helped make calculus rigorous.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intermediate_value_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245098"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_intermediate_value_theorem_245098"},{"id":"w_cours_d_analyse_16747603","name":"Cours d'Analyse","year":1821,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Famous textbook on calculus. 1821— Augustin-Louis Cauchy publishes Cours d'Analyse, which purportedly contains an erroneous “proof” that the pointwise limit of continuous functions is continuous.","verdict":"Advance: Cauchy's 1821 Cours d'Analyse put calculus on rigorous foundations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cours_d%27analyse","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16747603"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cours_d_analyse_16747603"},{"id":"w_cauchy_s_integral_theorem_834025","name":"Cauchy's integral theorem","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. 1822— Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents Cauchy's integral theorem for integration around the boundary of a rectangle in the complex plane.","verdict":"Advance: Cauchy's 1825 integral theorem underpins complex analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cauchy's_integral_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q834025"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_cauchy_s_integral_theorem_834025"},{"id":"w_soddy_s_hexlet_3298255","name":"Soddy's hexlet","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chain of 6 spheres tangent to 3 given spheres. 1822—Irisawa Shintarō Hiroatsu analyzes Soddy's hexlet in a Sangaku.","verdict":"Advance: Japanese sangaku tablets (1822) analysed sphere chains before Soddy's 1937 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primes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Germain%27s_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3527162"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sophie_germain_s_theorem_3527162"},{"id":"w_stokes_theorem_467756","name":"Stokes' theorem","year":1825,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem in vector calculus. 1825 – André-Marie Ampère discovers Stokes' theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Ampère and Stokes's theorem (1850) relates line and surface integrals, central to Maxwell's equations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stokes'_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q467756"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stokes_theorem_467756"},{"id":"w_green_s_theorem_321237","name":"Green's theorem","year":1828,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Line integral around a closed curve to a double integral over its enclosed region. 1828 – George Green proves Green's theorem.","verdict":"Advance: George Green's 1828 theorem relates line and area integrals, used in electrostatics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Green's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q321237"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_green_s_theorem_321237"},{"id":"w_algebraic_equation_50698","name":"Algebraic equation","year":1832,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Equation of the form of equality of two polynomials. 1832 – Évariste Galois presents a general condition for the solvability of algebraic equations, thereby essentially founding group theory and Galois theory.","verdict":"Advance: Galois theory explained which equations can be solved.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Algebraic_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50698"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_algebraic_equation_50698"},{"id":"w_dirichlet_s_theorem_on_arithmetic_progre_550402","name":"Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions","year":1835,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem that, for coprime 𝑎 and 𝑑, there are infinitely many primes congruent to 𝑎 modulo 𝑑. 1835 – Lejeune Dirichlet proves Dirichlet's theorem about prime numbers in arithmetical progressions.","verdict":"Advance: Dirichlet's 1837 theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions founded analytic number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dirichlet's_theorem_on_arithmetic_progressions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q550402"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_dirichlet_s_theorem_on_arithmetic_progre_550402"},{"id":"w_laurent_series_425432","name":"Laurent series","year":1841,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Power series generalized to allow negative powers. 1841 – Karl Weierstrass discovers but does not publish the Laurent expansion theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Pierre Laurent's 1843 series (and Weierstrass's earlier work) handle functions with poles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laurent_series","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q425432"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_laurent_series_425432"},{"id":"w_soliton_464949","name":"Soliton","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Self-reinforcing solitary wave packet that maintains its shape while it propagates at a constant velocity. 1849 – George Gabriel Stokes shows that solitary waves can arise from a combination of periodic waves.","verdict":"Advance: John Scott Russell's 1834 solitary wave on a canal anticipated solitons used in fibre optics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soliton","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q464949"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1834)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_soliton_464949"},{"id":"w_mathematical_singularity_863349","name":"Mathematical singularity","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"In general a point at which a given mathematical object is not defined, or a point of an exceptional set where it fails to be well-behaved in some particular way, such as differentiability. 1850 – Victor Alexandre Puiseux distinguishes between poles and branch points and introduces the concept of essential singular points.","verdict":"Advance: Singularities, studied by Cauchy and Riemann, mark where functions blow up, as in black holes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Singularity_(mathematics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mathematical_singularity_863349"},{"id":"w_riemann_hypothesis_205966","name":"Riemann hypothesis","year":1859,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Conjecture in mathematics linked to the repartition of prime numbers. 1859 – Bernhard Riemann formulates the Riemann hypothesis, which has strong implications about the distribution of prime numbers.","verdict":"Advance: Riemann's 1859 hypothesis on zeta zeros, still unproven, would sharpen knowledge of prime distribution.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Riemann_hypothesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205966"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_riemann_hypothesis_205966"},{"id":"w_independence_2705017","name":"Independence","year":1868,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Concept in mathematical logic. 1868 – Eugenio Beltrami demonstrates the independence of Euclid ’s parallel postulate from the other axioms of Euclidean geometry.","verdict":"Advance: Eugenio Beltrami's 1868 model proved the parallel postulate independent, validating non-Euclidean geometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Independence_(mathematical_logic)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2705017"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_independence_2705017"},{"id":"w_dedekind_cut_851333","name":"Dedekind cut","year":1872,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of construction of the real numbers. 1872 – Richard Dedekind invents what is now called the Dedekind Cut for defining irrational numbers, and it is now used for defining surreal numbers.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Dedekind's 1872 cuts defined the real numbers rigorously.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dedekind_cut","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q851333"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_dedekind_cut_851333"},{"id":"w_automorphism_group_60790315","name":"Automorphism group","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical group formed from the automorphisms of an object. 1888 - Sophus Lie publishes work on transformation groups, serving as the foundation for the modern theory of Lie groups.","verdict":"Advance: Lie's transformation groups.","dependencies":["w_group_83478"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automorphism_group","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60790315"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_automorphism_group_60790315"},{"id":"w_hilbert_s_problems_273167","name":"Hilbert's problems","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Twenty-three problems in mathematics published in 1900. 1900 – David Hilbert states his list of 23 problems, which show where some further mathematical work is needed.","verdict":"Advance: Hilbert's 23 problems (1900) set 20th-century mathematics' agenda.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hilbert's_problems","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q273167"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hilbert_s_problems_273167"},{"id":"w_lebesgue_integration_853831","name":"Lebesgue integration","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Method of integration. 1901 – Henri Lebesgue publishes on Lebesgue integration.","verdict":"Advance: Henri Lebesgue's 1901 integral handled discontinuous functions, the basis of probability theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebesgue_integral","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853831"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lebesgue_integration_853831"},{"id":"w_ramanujan_petersson_conjecture_630650","name":"Ramanujan–Petersson conjecture","year":1916,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Conjecture. 1916 – Srinivasa Ramanujan introduces Ramanujan conjecture. This conjecture is later generalized by Hans Petersson.","verdict":"Advance: Ramanujan's 1916 tau conjecture, proved by Deligne in 1974, links modular forms and number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ramanujan%E2%80%93Petersson_conjecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q630650"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ramanujan_petersson_conjecture_630650"},{"id":"w_brun_s_theorem_844612","name":"Brun's theorem","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem that the sum of the reciprocals of the twin primes converges. 1919 – Viggo Brun defines Brun's constant B 2 for twin primes.","verdict":"Advance: Viggo Brun's 1919 theorem showed the twin-prime reciprocal sum converges.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brun's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844612"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_brun_s_theorem_844612"},{"id":"w_commutative_ring_858656","name":"Commutative ring","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algebraic structure. 1921 – Emmy Noether introduces the first general definition of a commutative ring.","verdict":"Advance: Emmy Noether's 1921 commutative rings founded abstract algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Commutative_ring","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_commutative_ring_858656"},{"id":"w_g_del_s_incompleteness_theorems_200787","name":"Gödel's incompleteness theorems","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem that a wide class of logical systems cannot be both consistent and complete. 1931 – Kurt Gödel proves his incompleteness theorem, which shows that every axiomatic system for mathematics is either incomplete or inconsistent.","verdict":"Advance: Gödel's 1931 incompleteness theorems showed no formal system can prove all arithmetic truths.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/G%C3%B6del's_incompleteness_theorems","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200787"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_g_del_s_incompleteness_theorems_200787"},{"id":"w_probability_axioms_974605","name":"Probability axioms","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Axioms that are relevant to the probability theory. 1933 – Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov publishes his book Basic notions of the calculus of probability ( Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung ), which contains an axiomatization of probability based on measure theory.","verdict":"Advance: Kolmogorov's 1933 axioms put probability on measure theory, the foundation of statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Probability_axioms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q974605"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_probability_axioms_974605"},{"id":"w_lu_decomposition_833089","name":"LU decomposition","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Matrix decomposition. 1938 – Tadeusz Banachiewicz introduces LU decomposition.","verdict":"Advance: Tadeusz Banachiewicz's 1938 LU decomposition is used in numerical linear algebra.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LU_decomposition","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q833089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lu_decomposition_833089"},{"id":"w_continuum_hypothesis_208416","name":"Continuum hypothesis","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hypothesis that no set has a cardinality between that of the integers and that of the real numbers. 1940 – Kurt Gödel shows that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be disproven from the standard axioms of set theory.","verdict":"Advance: Gödel's 1940 proof showed the continuum hypothesis is consistent with set theory; Cohen proved independence in 1963.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Continuum_hypothesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208416"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1877)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_continuum_hypothesis_208416"},{"id":"w_self_replicating_machine_691243","name":"Self-replicating machine","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Device able to make copies of itself. 1948 – John von Neumann mathematically studies self-reproducing machines.","verdict":"Advance: Von Neumann's 1948 universal constructor showed that a machine can mathematically build copies of itself, an idea behind proposals for self-replicating space factories.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-replicating_machine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q691243"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_self_replicating_machine_691243"},{"id":"w_cellular_automaton_189156","name":"Cellular automaton","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Discrete model studied in computability theory, mathematics, physics, complexity science, theoretical biology and microstructure modeling. 1950 – Stanisław Ulam and John von Neumann present cellular automata dynamical systems.","verdict":"Advance: Von Neumann and Ulam's cellular automata (1940s) modelled self-reproduction; Conway's Life (1970) popularized them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cellular_automaton","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189156"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cellular_automaton_189156"},{"id":"w_chomsky_hierarchy_190913","name":"Chomsky hierarchy","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. 1956 – Noam Chomsky describes a hierarchy of formal languages.","verdict":"Advance: Noam Chomsky's 1956 hierarchy classified formal grammars, shaping compilers and linguistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chomsky_hierarchy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190913"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chomsky_hierarchy_190913"},{"id":"w_exotic_sphere_3105146","name":"Exotic sphere","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Smooth manifold that is homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic to a sphere. 1956 – John Milnor discovers the existence of an Exotic sphere in seven dimensions, inaugurating the field of differential topology.","verdict":"Advance: John Milnor's 1956 exotic seven-spheres revealed smooth structures beyond intuition.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exotic_sphere","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3105146"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_exotic_sphere_3105146"},{"id":"w_it_calculus_947053","name":"Itō calculus","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Calculus of stochastic differential equations. 1957 – Kiyosi Itô develops Itô calculus.","verdict":"Advance: Kiyosi Itô's 1944 stochastic calculus underpins the Black–Scholes option pricing model.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/It%C3%B4_calculus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q947053"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_it_calculus_947053"},{"id":"w_constructive_proof_3044470","name":"Constructive proof","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method of proof that demonstrates the existence of a mathematical object by creating or providing a method for creating the object. 1957 – Stephen Smale provides the existence proof for crease-free sphere eversion.","verdict":"Advance: Constructive proofs, championed by Brouwer and Bishop, build explicit objects and power proof assistants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Constructive_proof","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3044470"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_constructive_proof_3044470"},{"id":"w_kalman_filter_846780","name":"Kalman filter","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm that estimates unknowns from a series of measurements over time. 1960 - Rudolf Kalman introduced the Kalman filter in his \"A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction Problems\".","verdict":"Advance: Rudolf Kálmán's 1960 filter fused noisy sensor data to guide Apollo and now every GPS receiver.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kalman_filter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846780"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kalman_filter_846780"},{"id":"w_levenberg_marquardt_algorithm_1426494","name":"Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithm. 1962 – Donald Marquardt proposes the Levenberg–Marquardt nonlinear least squares fitting algorithm.","verdict":"Advance: The Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm (1944, 1963) fits nonlinear models, widely used in curve fitting.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Levenberg%E2%80%93Marquardt_algorithm","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1426494"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_levenberg_marquardt_algorithm_1426494"},{"id":"w_forcing_1003136","name":"Forcing","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In set theory, a technique for enlarging models of axioms of set theory (e.g. ZFC) by adjoining new elements, often used for proving consistency and independence results. 1963 – Paul Cohen uses his technique of forcing to show that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be proven from the standard axioms of set theory.","verdict":"Advance: Paul Cohen's 1963 forcing proved the continuum hypothesis independent, earning the Fields Medal.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Forcing_(mathematics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1003136"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_forcing_1003136"},{"id":"w_attractor_507187","name":"Attractor","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of numerical values toward which a system tends to evolve, for a wide variety of starting conditions of the system.","verdict":"Advance: Strange attractors; the mathematics of chaos.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Attractor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q507187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_attractor_507187"},{"id":"w_fuzzy_set_1055058","name":"Fuzzy set","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sets whose elements have degrees of membership. 1965 – Iranian mathematician Lotfi Asker Zadeh founded fuzzy set theory as an extension of the classical notion of sets and he founded the field of fuzzy mathematics.","verdict":"Advance: Zadeh's fuzzy sets (1965) allowed partial membership; they ended up in appliance controllers and Japan's Sendai subway.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuzzy_set","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1055058"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fuzzy_set_1055058"},{"id":"w_matrix_exponential_1191722","name":"Matrix exponential","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Matrix operation generalizing exponentiation of scalar numbers. 1966 – E. J. Putzer presents two methods for computing the exponential of a matrix in terms of a polynomial in that matrix.","verdict":"Advance: E. J. Putzer's 1966 methods compute matrix exponentials for linear differential equations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Matrix_exponential","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1191722"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_matrix_exponential_1191722"},{"id":"w_nonstandard_analysis_1503766","name":"Nonstandard analysis","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Alternative formulation of calculus using a logically rigorous notion of infinitesimal numbers. 1966 – Abraham Robinson presents non-standard analysis.","verdict":"Advance: Abraham Robinson's 1966 nonstandard analysis made infinitesimals rigorous.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nonstandard_analysis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1503766"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nonstandard_analysis_1503766"},{"id":"w_langlands_program_1393253","name":"Langlands program","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Web of far-reaching and influential conjectures about connections between number theory and geometry. 1967 – Robert Langlands formulates the influential Langlands program of conjectures relating number theory and representation theory.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Langlands's 1967 letter to Weil launched a grand unified program for number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Langlands_program","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1393253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_langlands_program_1393253"},{"id":"w_diophantine_equation_905896","name":"Diophantine equation","year":500,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polynomial equation with integer solutions. 500 — Aryabhata solves the general linear diophantine equation.","verdict":"Advance: Āryabhaṭa solved linear Diophantine equations, later extended by Brahmagupta to quadratics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diophantine_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905896"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_diophantine_equation_905896"},{"id":"w_faltings_theorem_240950","name":"Faltings' theorem","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem. 1983 – Gerd Faltings proves the Mordell conjecture and thereby shows that there are only finitely many whole number solutions for each exponent of Fermat's Last Theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Gerd Faltings's 1983 proof of the Mordell conjecture earned the 1986 Fields Medal.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faltings%27_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q240950"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_faltings_theorem_240950"},{"id":"w_jones_polynomial_1528291","name":"Jones polynomial","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical invariant of a knot or link. 1984 – Vaughan Jones discovers the Jones polynomial in knot theory, which leads to other new knot polynomials as well as connections between knot theory and other fields.","verdict":"Advance: Vaughan Jones's 1984 polynomial for knots linked topology and physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jones_polynomial","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1528291"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_jones_polynomial_1528291"},{"id":"w_de_branges_s_theorem_857089","name":"De Branges's theorem","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. 1985 – Louis de Branges de Bourcia proves the Bieberbach conjecture.","verdict":"Advance: Louis de Branges proved the Bieberbach conjecture in 1984, ending a 68-year problem.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Branges's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_de_branges_s_theorem_857089"},{"id":"w_ribet_s_theorem_7322366","name":"Ribet's theorem","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Result concerning properties of Galois representations associated with modular forms. 1986 – Ken Ribet proves Ribet's theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Ken Ribet's 1986 theorem linked Fermat's Last Theorem to modularity, setting up Wiles's proof.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ribet's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7322366"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ribet_s_theorem_7322366"},{"id":"w_modularity_theorem_649469","name":"Modularity theorem","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem in mathematics. 1994 – Andrew Wiles proves part of the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture and thereby proves Fermat's Last Theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Andrew Wiles's 1994 proof of modularity for semistable curves proved Fermat's Last Theorem.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Modularity_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q649469"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_modularity_theorem_649469"},{"id":"w_bailey_borwein_plouffe_formula_803807","name":"Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Formula for calculating π. 1995 – Simon Plouffe discovers Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula capable of finding the n th binary digit of π.","verdict":"Advance: The 1995 Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula computes hexadecimal digits of π without earlier digits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bailey%E2%80%93Borwein%E2%80%93Plouffe_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q803807"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bailey_borwein_plouffe_formula_803807"},{"id":"w_catalan_s_conjecture_174955","name":"Catalan's conjecture","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem about consecutive powers. 2002 – Preda Mihăilescu proves Catalan's conjecture.","verdict":"Advance: Preda Mihăilescu's 2002 proof showed 8 and 9 are the only consecutive powers.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catalan's_conjecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_catalan_s_conjecture_174955"},{"id":"w_graph_isomorphism_problem_3738036","name":"Graph isomorphism problem","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computational problem of determining whether two finite graphs are isomorphic. 2015 – László Babai finds that a quasipolynomial complexity algorithm would solve the Graph isomorphism problem.","verdict":"Advance: László Babai's 2015 quasipolynomial algorithm for graph isomorphism was a landmark in complexity theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graph_isomorphism_problem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3738036"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_graph_isomorphism_problem_3738036"},{"id":"w_sphere_packing_900117","name":"Sphere packing","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"An arrangement of non-overlapping spheres within a containing space. 2016 – Maryna Viazovska solves the sphere packing problem in dimension 8. Subsequent work building on this leads to a solution for dimension 24.","verdict":"Advance: Viazovska's proof that the E8 lattice is the densest packing in 8 dimensions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sphere_packing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_mathematics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q900117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sphere_packing_900117"},{"id":"w_ayurveda_132325","name":"Ayurveda","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pseudoscientific alternative medicine originating from India. 3000 BC – The origins of Ayurveda traced back to around 3,000 BCE.","verdict":"Advance: Ancient Indian traditional medicine; long-lived, but largely unvalidated by trials.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ayurveda","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132325"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_ayurveda_132325"},{"id":"w_kahun_gynaecological_papyrus_17007045","name":"Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus","year":-1800,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient Egyptian medical text. 1800 BC – Kahun Gynecological Papyrus","verdict":"Advance: The Kahun papyrus (c. 1800 BCE) is the oldest surviving medical text, devoted to women's health, covering pregnancy tests and contraception.","dependencies":[],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kahun_Gynaecological_Papyrus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17007045"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_kahun_gynaecological_papyrus_17007045"},{"id":"w_hearst_papyrus_1148699","name":"Hearst papyrus","year":-1600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Manuscript. 1600 BC – Hearst papyrus, coprotherapy and magic","verdict":"Advance: The Hearst papyrus mixes practical prescriptions for urinary and dental complaints with spells, a snapshot of medicine before science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearst_papyrus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1148699"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hearst_papyrus_1148699"},{"id":"w_saffron_25434","name":"Saffron","year":-1500,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus. 1500 BC – Saffron used as a medicine on the Aegean island of Thera in ancient Greece","verdict":"Advance: Saffron, shown in the frescoes of Akrotiri on Thera, was traded as a dye, medicine and spice, showing that Bronze Age commerce in high-value botanicals had begun.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saffron","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25434"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_saffron_25434"},{"id":"w_brugsch_papyrus_4978687","name":"Brugsch Papyrus","year":-1300,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus. 1300 BC – Brugsch Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus","verdict":"Advance: The Brugsch papyrus holds early descriptions of infant ailments and fertility tests, showing Egyptian doctors systematizing observations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brugsch_Papyrus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4978687"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_brugsch_papyrus_4978687"},{"id":"w_traditional_chinese_medicine_200253","name":"Traditional Chinese medicine","year":-200,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. c. 400 BC – 1 BC – The Huangdi Neijing ( Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine ) is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine","verdict":"Advance: The Huangdi Neijing systematized pulse-taking and herbal therapy; its pharmacopoeia yielded artemisinin (Tu Youyou, Nobel 2015), though many claims remain unverified.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Traditional_Chinese_medicine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_traditional_chinese_medicine_200253"},{"id":"w_empiricism_83368","name":"Empiric school of medicine","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. 3rd century BC – Philinus of Cos founder of the Empiricist school. Herophilos and Erasistratus practice androtomy. (Dissecting live and dead human beings)","verdict":"Advance: Philinus and Serapion's Empiric school judged treatments by observed results rather than theory, a forerunner of evidence-based medicine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Empiricism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83368"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_empiricism_83368"},{"id":"w_human_brain_492038","name":"Brain anatomy (Erasistratus)","year":-250,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Main organ of the human nervous system. 250 BC – Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum physiology of the brain, heart and eyes, and in the vascular, nervous, respiratory and reproductive systems","verdict":"Advance: Erasistratus dissected human brains in Alexandria about 250 BCE and told sensory from motor nerves, foundational neurology lost for a millennium after him.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_brain","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q492038"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_human_brain_492038"},{"id":"w_clinic_1774898","name":"Clinic","year":-200,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Health care facility, primarily focused on the care of outpatients. 200 BC – the Charaka Samhita uses a rational approach to the causes and cure of disease and uses objective methods of clinical examination","verdict":"Advance: The Charaka Samhita set out rational diagnosis and physician ethics, and organized clinics spread from India to Buddhist and later Islamic hospitals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Clinic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1774898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_clinic_1774898"},{"id":"w_de_gradibus_303017","name":"De gradibus","year":850,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Book by Al-Kindi. c. 800 – 873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) De Gradibus","verdict":"Advance: Al-Kindi's De gradibus quantified drug potency on a mathematical scale, an early attempt to dose medicines by number.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Gradibus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q303017"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_de_gradibus_303017"},{"id":"w_tropical_medicine_1365243","name":"Tropical medicine","year":1563,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical specialty. 1563 – Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments","verdict":"Advance: Garcia de Orta's 1563 Goa treatise first described cholera and tropical drugs for Europe, founding a discipline now fighting malaria and neglected diseases.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tropical_medicine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1365243"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tropical_medicine_1365243"},{"id":"w_appendectomy_620840","name":"Appendectomy","year":1736,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surgical removal of the vermiform appendix. 1736 – Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy","verdict":"Advance: First successful appendectomy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Appendectomy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620840"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_appendectomy_620840"},{"id":"w_bloodletting_356405","name":"Bloodletting","year":1790,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Therapy, now rarely used in medicine. 1790 – Samuel Hahnemann rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy","verdict":"Advance: Bloodletting persisted for 2,000 years until controlled trials such as Louis's (1835) showed it did harm, a lesson in testing therapies.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bloodletting","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q356405"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_bloodletting_356405"},{"id":"w_anesthetic_4990531","name":"Anesthetic","year":1799,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Drug that causes anesthesia. 1799 – Humphry Davy discovers the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide","verdict":"Advance: Pain-free surgery became possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anesthetic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4990531"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1804)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_anesthetic_4990531"},{"id":"w_blood_transfusion_183605","name":"Blood transfusion","year":1818,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Generally the process of receiving blood or blood products into one's circulation intravenously. 1818 – James Blundell performs the first successful human transfusion.","verdict":"Advance: James Blundell's 1818 human-to-human transfusions saved women after childbirth haemorrhage; blood typing (1901) and banking made them safe and routine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blood_transfusion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183605"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_blood_transfusion_183605"},{"id":"w_four_temperaments_5782572","name":"Four temperaments","year":-400,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ancient Greek and Roman system of medicine involving four fluid types. 1858 – Rudolf Carl Virchow 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902 his theories of cellular pathology spelled the end of Humoral medicine.","verdict":"Advance: Humoral theory organized medicine for two millennia; it was wrong, but it was systematic.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Humorism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5782572"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_four_temperaments_5782572"},{"id":"w_snellen_chart_556012","name":"Snellen chart","year":1861,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Eye chart used to measure visual acuity. 1861 – Snellen chart developed by Herman Snellen.","verdict":"Advance: Herman Snellen's 1862 letter chart made visual acuity measurable and comparable worldwide, the basis of glasses prescriptions.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Snellen_chart","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q556012"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_snellen_chart_556012"},{"id":"w_blood_type_47657","name":"Blood type","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Classification of blood based on antibodies and antigens on red blood cell surfaces. 1901 – Karl Landsteiner discovers the existence of different human blood types","verdict":"Advance: Karl Landsteiner's 1901 discovery of A, B and O groups made transfusion safe and earned the 1930 Nobel Prize.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blood_type","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47657","https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_blood_group_systems","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_immunology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1024817"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_blood_type_47657"},{"id":"w_stereotactic_surgery_1931968","name":"Stereotactic surgery","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical procedure. 1908 – Victor Horsley and R. Clarke invents the stereotactic method","verdict":"Advance: Horsley and Clarke's 1908 3-D coordinate frame let surgeons target deep brain points precisely, enabling today's deep brain stimulation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stereotactic_surgery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1931968"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_stereotactic_surgery_1931968"},{"id":"w_intrauterine_device_899868","name":"Intrauterine device","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"T-shaped birth control device placed in the womb. 1909 – First intrauterine device described by Richard Richter.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Richter's 1909 silk-gut ring was the first IUD; modern copper and hormonal versions are among the most effective reversible contraceptives.","dependencies":["w_birth_control_122224"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intrauterine_device","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899868"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_intrauterine_device_899868"},{"id":"w_electroconvulsive_therapy_131543","name":"Electroconvulsive therapy","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Medical procedure. 1917 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane","verdict":"Advance: Cerletti and Bini's 1938 ECT, now done under anaesthesia, remains among the most effective treatments for severe depression.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electroconvulsive_therapy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131543"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_electroconvulsive_therapy_131543"},{"id":"w_vitamin_d_175621","name":"Vitamin D","year":1921,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Group of molecules derived from delta-5,7 steroids used as vitamin; also, active metabolites of said vitamin. 1921 – Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets","verdict":"Advance: Elmer McCollum's 1922 identification of vitamin D, plus the irradiation of food, nearly wiped out rickets in industrial cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vitamin_D","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175621"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_vitamin_d_175621"},{"id":"w_gender_affirming_surgery_1053501","name":"Gender-affirming surgery","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surgical procedures to alter sexual characteristics to match identified gender. 1930 – First successful sex reassignment surgery performed on Lili Elbe in Dresden, Germany.","verdict":"Advance: Lili Elbe's 1930–31 operations in Germany were among the first sex reassignment surgeries; the procedures are now established yet debated in medicine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1053501"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gender_affirming_surgery_1053501"},{"id":"w_insulin_shock_therapy_122694","name":"Insulin shock therapy","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Psychiatric treatment. 1933 – Manfred Sakel discovers insulin shock therapy","verdict":"Advance: Manfred Sakel's 1933 insulin comas were briefly a schizophrenia treatment, dropped once trials and antipsychotics proved better.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Insulin_shock_therapy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122694"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1927)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_insulin_shock_therapy_122694"},{"id":"w_lobotomy_207684","name":"Lobotomy","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Discontinued neurosurgical operation. 1936 – Egas Moniz discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases; Enrique Finochietto develops the 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1952 frog nuclear transfer showed that a body cell's nucleus can direct development, the line that led to Dolly the sheep in 1996.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cloning","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120877"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cloning_120877"},{"id":"w_ventouse_1252883","name":"Ventouse","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Method to assist the delivery of a baby using a vacuum device. 1954 – Ventouse – Tage Malmstrom","verdict":"Advance: Tage Malmström's 1954 vacuum extractor offered a gentler alternative to forceps in difficult births.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vacuum_extraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1252883"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_ventouse_1252883"},{"id":"w_metered_dose_inhaler_16897784","name":"Metered-dose inhaler","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Device that helps deliver a specific amount of medication to the lungs. 1956 – Metered-dose inhaler – 3M","verdict":"Advance: Riker Laboratories' 1956 pressurized inhaler delivered exact asthma doses, transforming life for millions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metered-dose_inhaler","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16897784"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_metered_dose_inhaler_16897784"},{"id":"w_drug_delivery_1392806","name":"Drug delivery","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Methods for transporting a drug in the body as needed to safely achieve its desired effect. 1968 – Controlled drug delivery – Alejandro Zaffaron","verdict":"Advance: Alza's controlled-release systems (from 1968) delivered drugs at steady rates, improving adherence and cutting side effects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Drug_delivery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1392806"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_drug_delivery_1392806"},{"id":"w_balloon_catheter_1106192","name":"Balloon catheter","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical device. 1969 – Balloon catheter – Thomas Fogarty","verdict":"Advance: Thomas Fogarty's balloon catheter (1961) pulled out clots without open surgery, the basis of angioplasty and stenting.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Balloon_catheter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1106192"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_balloon_catheter_1106192"},{"id":"w_gmo_182726","name":"GMO","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering methods. 1971 – Genetically modified organisms – Ananda Chakrabart","verdict":"Advance: Cohen and Boyer's 1973 recombinant DNA made the first genetically modified organism, leading to insulin-producing bacteria and pest-resistant crops.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genetically_modified_organism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182726"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gmo_182726"},{"id":"w_transdermal_patch_1145270","name":"Transdermal patch","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Adhesive patch used to deliver medication through the skin. 1971 – Transdermal patches – Alejandro Zaffaroni","verdict":"Advance: Alejandro Zaffaroni's skin patches (approved 1979) deliver steady drug doses through the skin, now used for nicotine, hormones and pain.","dependencies":["w_drug_delivery_1392806"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transdermal_patch","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1145270"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_transdermal_patch_1145270"},{"id":"w_liposuction_825490","name":"Liposuction","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Procedure used in plastic surgery to remove unwanted fat. 1974 – Liposuction – Giorgio Fischer","verdict":"Advance: Giorgio Fischer's 1974 cannula suction and Illouz's refinements made fat removal minimally invasive.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Liposuction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q825490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_liposuction_825490"},{"id":"w_antiviral_drug_846227","name":"Antiviral drug","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Class of medications. 1979 – Antiviral drugs – George Hitchings and Gertrude Elion","verdict":"Advance: Elion and Hitchings opened antiviral drug design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Antiviral_drug","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846227"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_antiviral_drug_846227"},{"id":"w_extracorporeal_shockwave_therapy_eswt_1385189","name":"Extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT)","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Therapy used to treat kidney stones and plantar fasciitis. 1980 – Lithotripter – Dornier Research Group","verdict":"Advance: Dornier's 1980 lithotripter smashes kidney stones with focused shockwaves, replacing open surgery for most patients.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extracorporeal_shockwave_therapy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1385189"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_extracorporeal_shockwave_therapy_eswt_1385189"},{"id":"w_artificial_skin_3344895","name":"Artificial skin","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Material to regenerate or replace skin. 1981 – Artificial skin – John F. Burke and Ioannis V. Yannas","verdict":"Advance: Engineered skin for burn victims.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_skin","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3344895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_artificial_skin_3344895"},{"id":"w_dna_sequencer_908889","name":"DNA sequencer","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A scientific instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. 1985 – Automated DNA sequencer – Leroy Hood and Lloyd Smith","verdict":"Advance: Leroy Hood's 1986 fluorescent automated sequencer replaced radioactive gels, accelerating the genome era by orders of magnitude.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DNA_sequencer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q908889"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dna_sequencer_908889"},{"id":"w_robot_assisted_surgery_942348","name":"Robot-assisted surgery","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Surgical procedure aided by robotic systems. 1985 – Surgical robot – Yik San Kwoh","verdict":"Advance: Yik San Kwoh's 1985 PUMA 560 brain biopsy was the first robot-assisted operation, leading to da Vinci systems used in millions of surgeries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Robotic_surgery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q942348"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_robot_assisted_surgery_942348"},{"id":"w_cataract_surgery_1818260","name":"Cataract surgery","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ocular surgery performed to remove cataracts. 1988 – Laser cataract surgery – Patricia Bath","verdict":"Advance: Patricia Bath's laserphaco probe (1986, patented 1988) made cataract removal more precise; cataract surgery restores sight to about 20 million a year.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cataract_surgery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1818260"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cataract_surgery_1818260"},{"id":"w_dna_microarray_591745","name":"DNA microarray","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Use of large set of oligonucleotide probes. 1989 – DNA microarray – Stephen Fodor","verdict":"Advance: Stephen Fodor's photolithographic gene chips (c. 1991) measured thousands of genes at once, the first genome-wide expression profiling.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DNA_microarray","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q591745"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dna_microarray_591745"},{"id":"w_gamow_bag_287250","name":"Gamow bag","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"An inflatable pressure bag. 1990 – Gamow bag ® – Igor Gamow","verdict":"Advance: Igor Gamow's portable hyperbaric bag (1990) treats altitude sickness by pressurizing a climber to lower-altitude conditions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Portable_hyperbaric_bag","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287250"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_gamow_bag_287250"},{"id":"w_hepatitis_a_vaccine_3553093","name":"Hepatitis A vaccine","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine to prevent Hepatitis A. 1991 – First vaccine for hepatitis A","verdict":"Advance: Inactivated hepatitis A vaccines from 1991 to 1995 sharply cut outbreaks in countries that adopted them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hepatitis_A_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3553093"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hepatitis_a_vaccine_3553093"},{"id":"w_electroactive_polymer_543275","name":"Electroactive polymer","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Polymer that exhibits a change in size or shape when stimulated by an electric field. 1992 – Electroactive polymers (artificial muscle) – SRI International","verdict":"Advance: Polymers that bend with voltage act as artificial muscles for soft robots and haptics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electroactive_polymer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q543275"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_electroactive_polymer_543275"},{"id":"w_intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection_28700","name":"Intracytoplasmic sperm injection","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In vitro fertilization procedure. 1992 – Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) – Andre van Steirteghem","verdict":"Advance: Gianpiero Palermo and André Van Steirteghem's 1992 ICSI injects one sperm into the egg, treating severe male infertility.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28700"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection_28700"},{"id":"w_stem_cell_therapy_1533033","name":"Stem-cell therapy","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. 1998 – Stem cell therapy – James Thomson","verdict":"Advance: James Thomson's 1998 isolation of human embryonic stem cells opened regenerative medicine; approved stem cell therapies remain few but growing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stem-cell_therapy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1533033"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_stem_cell_therapy_1533033"},{"id":"w_remote_surgery_13424305","name":"Remote surgery","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ability for a doctor to perform surgery on a patient even though they are not physically in the same location. 2001 – The first telesurgery was performed by Jacques Marescaux.","verdict":"Advance: Jacques Marescaux's 2001 Lindbergh Operation, a gallbladder removal in Strasbourg controlled from New York, proved transatlantic telesurgery.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Remote_surgery","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13424305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_remote_surgery_13424305"},{"id":"w_face_transplant_1519214","name":"Face transplant","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medical procedure to replace a person's face using donor tissue. 2005 – Jean-Michel Dubernard performs the first partial face transplant.","verdict":"Advance: Bernard Devauchelle and Jean-Michel Dubernard's 2005 partial face transplant for Isabelle Dinoire restored function after a dog attack.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Face_transplant","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1519214"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_face_transplant_1519214"},{"id":"w_rotavirus_vaccine_4411598","name":"Rotavirus vaccine","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of vaccine. 1998 – First vaccine for rotavirus","verdict":"Advance: RotaShield (1998) was withdrawn after a 1999 bowel-blockage signal; its successors RotaTeq and Rotarix (2006) now save tens of thousands of children a year.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rotavirus_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4411598"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rotavirus_vaccine_4411598"},{"id":"w_visual_prosthesis_540043","name":"Visual prosthesis","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental visual device intended to restore functional vision in those suffering from partial or total blindness. 2007 – The visual prosthetic (bionic eye) Argus II.","verdict":"Advance: Retinal implants like Argus II, in trials from 2007, gave some blind patients light and shape perception, a step toward bionic vision.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Visual_prosthesis","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q540043"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_visual_prosthesis_540043"},{"id":"w_uterus_transplantation_5975885","name":"Uterus transplantation","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Surgical procedure. 2011 – First successful Uterus transplant from a deceased donor in Turkey","verdict":"Advance: Turkey's 2011 deceased-donor uterus transplant, then Sweden's 2014 live birth, gave women without a uterus a way to carry pregnancy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Uterus_transplantation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5975885"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_uterus_transplantation_5975885"},{"id":"w_3d_printing_229367","name":"3D printing","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Layer-by-layer additive process used to make a three-dimensional object. 2014 – A 3D printer is used for first ever skull transplant.","verdict":"Advance: Additive manufacturing reaches medicine, aerospace and the workshop.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/3D_printing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q229367"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_3d_printing_229367"},{"id":"w_root_canal_treatment_905815","name":"Root canal treatment","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Dental procedure. 2014 - Sonendo, a medical technology company based in Laguna Hills, California, introduces the GentleWave system in the United States for root canal treatments.","verdict":"Advance: Root-canal therapy, cleaning and sealing infected pulp, practised by Edwin Maynard and others from the 1830s, saves teeth that would otherwise be pulled.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Root_canal_treatment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905815"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_root_canal_treatment_905815"},{"id":"w_meteorology_2741164","name":"Meteorology (Aristotle)","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Treatise by Aristotle. 350 BC – The Greek philosopher Aristotle writes Meteorology, a work which represents the sum of knowledge of the time about Earth sciences, including weather and climate.","verdict":"Advance: Aristotle's Meteorology explained weather, 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al-Haytham on atmospheric refraction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atmospheric_refraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254634"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atmospheric_refraction_254634"},{"id":"w_anemometer_175029","name":"Anemometer","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Meteorological instrumentation used for measuring the speed of wind. 1450 – Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and is known as the first anemometer.","verdict":"Advance: Measuring wind speed; meteorology becomes quantitative.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anemometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175029"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_anemometer_175029"},{"id":"w_weather_lore_252670","name":"Weather lore","year":1510,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Body of informal folklore related to the prediction of the weather. 1510 – Leonhard Reynmann, astronomer of Nuremberg, publishes ″Wetterbüchlein Von warer erkanntnus des wetters″, a collection of weather lore.","verdict":"Advance: Weather proverbs like \"red sky at night\" encode observation, partly confirmed by meteorology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weather_lore","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q252670"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_weather_lore_252670"},{"id":"w_thermoscope_2142490","name":"Thermoscope","year":1592,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Old version of modern thermometer that measures the heat by both temperature and pressure.. 1592–1593 — Galileo Galilei builds a device showing variation of hotness known as the thermoscope using the contraction of air to draw water up a tube.","verdict":"Advance: Galileo's 1593 thermoscope showed temperature changes, leading to the thermometer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thermoscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2142490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_thermoscope_2142490"},{"id":"w_atmospheric_pressure_81809","name":"Atmospheric pressure","year":1648,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Static pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. 1648 – Blaise Pascal rediscovers that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.","verdict":"Advance: Pascal confirmed atmospheric pressure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atmospheric_pressure","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81809"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atmospheric_pressure_81809"},{"id":"w_trade_wind_160603","name":"Trade wind","year":1686,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Permanent east-to-west prevailing winds that flow in the Earth's equatorial region. 1686 – Edmund Halley presents a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identifies solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.","verdict":"Advance: Edmond Halley's 1686 map of the trade winds was an early meteorological chart, explaining them by solar heating.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trade_winds","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160603"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_trade_wind_160603"},{"id":"w_atmospheric_circulation_2615451","name":"Atmospheric circulation","year":1735,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Large-scale movement of air, a means by which thermal energy is distributed on Earth's surface. 1735 – The first ideal explanation of global circulation was the study of the Trade winds by George Hadley.","verdict":"Advance: Hadley's explanation of the trade winds.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atmospheric_circulation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2615451"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atmospheric_circulation_2615451"},{"id":"w_six_s_thermometer_1936981","name":"Six's thermometer","year":1782,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Meteorological instrument to measure Temperature. 1780 – James Six invents the Six's thermometer, a thermometer that records minimum and maximum temperatures. See ( Six's thermometer )","verdict":"Advance: James Six's 1782 maximum–minimum thermometer recorded daily temperature extremes for weather records.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Six's_thermometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1936981"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_six_s_thermometer_1936981"},{"id":"w_caloric_theory_845261","name":"Caloric theory","year":1783,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Obsolete scientific theory of heat flow. 1783 – In Lavoisier 's article \"Reflexions sur le phlogistique\", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory of heat.","verdict":"Advance: Lavoisier's caloric theory treated heat as fluid, useful to Carnot before kinetic theory replaced it.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caloric_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q845261"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_caloric_theory_845261"},{"id":"w_beaufort_scale_170464","name":"Beaufort Scale","year":1806,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Empirical measure describing wind speed based on observed conditions. 1806 – Francis Beaufort introduces his system for classifying wind speeds.","verdict":"Advance: Francis Beaufort's 1806 wind scale standardized sea-state reports.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Beaufort_scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170464"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_beaufort_scale_170464"},{"id":"w_dimension_4440864","name":"Dimension","year":1822,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Maximum number of independent directions within a mathematical space. 1822 – Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur.","verdict":"Advance: Fourier's 1822 dimensional analysis 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one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented.","verdict":"Advance: Standard tapers like Morse's (1864) held drill bits by friction, making tool changes fast and accurate.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Machine_taper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1778349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_machine_taper_1778349"},{"id":"w_first_law_of_thermodynamics_179380","name":"First law of thermodynamics","year":1847,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Statement of conservation of energy as it applies specifically to a thermodynamic system or process. 1847 – Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics.","verdict":"Advance: Helmholtz's 1847 statement of energy conservation formalized the first law of thermodynamics.","dependencies":["w_conservation_of_energy_11382"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/First_law_of_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179380"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1824)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_first_law_of_thermodynamics_179380"},{"id":"w_maxwell_boltzmann_distribution_634965","name":"Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution","year":1859,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Specific probability distribution function, important in physics. 1859 – James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities.","verdict":"Advance: Maxwell's 1860 velocity distribution described molecular speeds, the first statistical law of physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q634965"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_maxwell_boltzmann_distribution_634965"},{"id":"w_boltzmann_equation_891653","name":"Boltzmann equation","year":1872,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Equation of statistical mechanics. 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Boltzmann's 1872 equation describes gas dynamics, used in plasma physics and reentry design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boltzmann_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q891653"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_boltzmann_equation_891653"},{"id":"w_statistical_ensemble_898535","name":"Statistical ensemble","year":1876,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Set of systems under identical condition. 1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, statistical ensembles, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical reactions, and chemical thermodynami…","verdict":"Advance: Gibbs's 1876–78 ensembles founded chemical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ensemble_(mathematical_physics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898535"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_statistical_ensemble_898535"},{"id":"w_polar_stratospheric_cloud_216417","name":"Polar stratospheric cloud","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Clouds occurring in the stratosphere in high-latitude regions. 1893 – Henrik Mohn reveals a discovery of nacreous clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere.","verdict":"Advance: Henrik Mohn's 1893 nacreous clouds are polar stratospheric clouds that enable ozone destruction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polar_stratospheric_cloud","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216417"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_polar_stratospheric_cloud_216417"},{"id":"w_international_cloud_atlas_1348053","name":"International Cloud Atlas","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cloud atlas. 1896 – IMO publishes the first International cloud atlas.","verdict":"Advance: The first International Cloud Atlas (1896) standardized cloud names for weather observers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/International_Cloud_Atlas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1348053"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_international_cloud_atlas_1348053"},{"id":"w_milankovitch_cycles_211446","name":"Milankovitch cycles","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Periodic changes in the orbital movements of the Earth, which cause cyclic variations in terrestrial climate. 1920 – Milutin Milanković proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity.","verdict":"Advance: Milutin Milanković's orbital cycles (1920) explain ice ages, confirmed by ocean cores in 1976.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Milankovitch_cycles","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211446"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_milankovitch_cycles_211446"},{"id":"w_radiosonde_852817","name":"Radiosonde","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Meteorological instrumentation. 1930, January 30 – Pavel Molchanov invents and launches the first radiosonde.","verdict":"Advance: Pavel Molchanov's 1930 radiosonde transmitted upper-air data by radio, now launched twice daily worldwide.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radiosonde","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852817"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_radiosonde_852817"},{"id":"w_rossby_wave_1053589","name":"Rossby wave","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of inertial wave in the atmospheres and oceans of planets that largely owe their properties to rotation of the planet. 1939 – Rossby waves were first identified in the atmosphere by Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby who explained their motion. Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves.","verdict":"Advance: Carl-Gustaf Rossby's 1939 planetary waves explained jet stream meanders and weather systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rossby_wave","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1053589"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_rossby_wave_1053589"},{"id":"w_saffir_simpson_hurricane_wind_scale_205801","name":"Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System of classifying tropical cyclones into five categories based on measured wind speed and used to estimate potential damage. 1969 – Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale created, used to describe hurricane strength on a category range of 1 to 5. Popularized during Hurricane Gloria of 1985 by media.","verdict":"Advance: Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson's 1971 scale rates hurricanes from Category 1 to 5.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205801"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_saffir_simpson_hurricane_wind_scale_205801"},{"id":"w_weather_radar_863343","name":"Weather radar","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Radar used to locate and monitor meteorological conditions. 1970s Weather radars are becoming more standardized and organized into networks. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, which allowed studies of thunderstorms.","verdict":"Advance: Doppler weather radar, standardized in the 1970s and deployed as NEXRAD, enables tornado warnings.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Weather_radar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863343"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_weather_radar_863343"},{"id":"w_fujita_scale_380770","name":"Fujita scale","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scale for rating tornado intensity. 1971 – Ted Fujita introduces the Fujita scale for rating tornadoes.","verdict":"Advance: Ted Fujita's 1971 tornado scale rated damage, upgraded in 2007 to the Enhanced Fujita scale.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fujita_scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380770"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fujita_scale_380770"},{"id":"w_automated_meteorological_data_acquisitio_4826428","name":"Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Snow depth observation data near GPS station.","verdict":"Advance: Japan's automated weather network.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_Meteorological_Data_Acquisition_System","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4826428"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_automated_meteorological_data_acquisitio_4826428"},{"id":"w_geostationary_operational_environmental__976688","name":"Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"United States weather forecasting satellite series. 1975 – The first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking.","verdict":"Advance: GOES-1 (1975) gave continuous geostationary views of US weather, tracking hurricanes in real time.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q976688"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_geostationary_operational_environmental__976688"},{"id":"w_noctilucent_cloud_192794","name":"Noctilucent cloud","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Highly-elevated cloud-like ice crystals in the upper atmosphere of Earth visible during astronomical twilight. PMC: Noctilucent veils Noctilucent billows or whirls Noctilucent bands","verdict":"Advance: Noctilucent clouds, first reported in 1885, are the highest clouds on Earth, at about 83 km.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Noctilucent_cloud","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_meteorology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192794"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_noctilucent_cloud_192794"},{"id":"w_refracting_telescope_216778","name":"Refracting telescope","year":1621,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Type of optical telescope. 1621: Cornelis Drebbel presents, in London, a compound microscope with a convex objective and a convex eyepiece (a \"Keplerian\" microscope).","verdict":"Advance: Refracting telescopes, improved by Kepler's design (1611), revealed lunar craters and Saturn's rings.","dependencies":["w_optical_telescope_35273"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Refracting_telescope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216778"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_refracting_telescope_216778"},{"id":"w_spherical_aberration_2913798","name":"Spherical aberration","year":1825,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Optical aberration. 1825: Joseph Jackson Lister develops combined lenses that cancelled spherical and chromatic aberration.","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Jackson Lister's 1830 achromatic lenses eliminated spherical aberration, enabling cell biology.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spherical_aberration","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2913798"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spherical_aberration_2913798"},{"id":"w_near_field_scanning_optical_microscopy_212656","name":"Near-field scanning optical microscopy","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microscopy technique. 1928: Edward Hutchinson Synge publishes theory underlying the near-field scanning optical microscope","verdict":"Advance: Edward Synge's 1928 near-field idea beat the diffraction limit; practical NSOM arrived in 1984.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Near-field_scanning_optical_microscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212656"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_near_field_scanning_optical_microscopy_212656"},{"id":"w_field_emission_microscopy_905455","name":"Field emission microscopy","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Analytical technique used in materials science. 1936: Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field emission microscope.","verdict":"Advance: Erwin Müller's 1936 field emission microscope imaged surface atoms, leading to the field-ion microscope that first showed individual atoms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-emission_microscopy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905455"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_field_emission_microscopy_905455"},{"id":"w_field_ion_microscope_550608","name":"Field ion microscope","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Microscope used for imaging atom arrangements. 1951: Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field ion microscope and is the first to see atoms.","verdict":"Advance: Erwin Müller's field ion microscope imaged individual atoms in 1955.","dependencies":["w_electron_microscope_132560"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_ion_microscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q550608"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_field_ion_microscope_550608"},{"id":"w_atom_probe_757649","name":"Atom probe","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Field ion microscope coupled with a mass spectrometer. 1988: Alfred Cerezo, Terence Godfrey, and George D. W. Smith applied a position-sensitive detector to the atom probe, making it able to resolve materials in three dimensions with near-atomic resolution.","verdict":"Advance: Atom-by-atom 3D materials analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atom_probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q757649"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_atom_probe_757649"},{"id":"w_kelvin_probe_force_microscope_1324110","name":"Kelvin probe force microscope","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy. 1991: Kelvin probe force microscope invented.","verdict":"Advance: Nonnenmacher's 1991 Kelvin probe microscope maps surface potentials at the nanoscale.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kelvin_probe_force_microscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_microscope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1324110"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2012)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_kelvin_probe_force_microscope_1324110"},{"id":"w_french_aerostatic_corps_5501675","name":"French Aerostatic Corps","year":1794,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"French air reconnaissance unit in Napoleonic War. 26 June 1794 – The French Aerostatic Corps used a tethered balloon at the Battle of Fleurus as a vantage point.","verdict":"Compete: The first military air force: balloon reconnaissance at Fleurus.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Aerostatic_Corps","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_military_aviation","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5501675"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_french_aerostatic_corps_5501675"},{"id":"w_newcomen_atmospheric_engine_2224989","name":"Newcomen atmospheric engine","year":1705,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early steam engine type. c. 1705 ( 1705 ): Thomas Newcomen develops the atmospheric engine, which, unlike the Savery pump, employs a piston in a cylinder; the vacuum pulling the piston down to the bottom of the cylinder when water is injected into it.","verdict":"Advance: Thomas Newcomen's 1712 atmospheric engine pumped water from mines, the first practical steam engine and a spark of the Industrial Revolution.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Newcomen_atmospheric_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2224989"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1712)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_newcomen_atmospheric_engine_2224989"},{"id":"w_pyr_olophore_2395446","name":"Pyréolophore","year":1807,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Internal combustion engine. 1807 – Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude build a fluid piston internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore and use it to power a boat up the river Saône.","verdict":"Advance: The Niépce brothers' 1807 Pyréolophore burned lycopodium dust to propel a boat on the Saône, the first internal combustion engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pyr%C3%A9olophore","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2395446"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_pyr_olophore_2395446"},{"id":"w_heat_engine_178185","name":"Heat engine","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to mechanical work. 1824 – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot first publishes that the efficiency of a heat engine depends on the temperature difference between an engine and its environment.","verdict":"Advance: Sadi Carnot's 1824 analysis set the maximum efficiency of heat engines, founding thermodynamics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178185"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_heat_engine_178185"},{"id":"w_atkinson_cycle_384952","name":"Atkinson cycle","year":1882,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thermodynamic cycle. 1882 – James Atkinson invents the Atkinson cycle engine, now common in some hybrid vehicles.","verdict":"Advance: A more efficient engine cycle, revived in hybrid cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atkinson_cycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q384952"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_atkinson_cycle_384952"},{"id":"w_supercharger_1079988","name":"Supercharger","year":1885,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Air compressor for an internal combustion engine. 1885 – Gottlieb Daimler patents the first supercharger.","verdict":"Advance: Gottlieb Daimler's 1885 supercharger forced air into engines for more power, essential to high-altitude aircraft.","dependencies":["w_air_compressor_978234"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Supercharger","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1079988"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_supercharger_1079988"},{"id":"w_hot_bulb_engine_953276","name":"Hot bulb engine","year":1886,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Internal combustion engine. 1886 – Hot-bulb engine was established by Herbert Akroyd Stuart, Gottlieb Daimler invents the Petrol engine.","verdict":"Advance: Herbert Akroyd Stuart's 1886 hot-bulb engine ran on cheap oil, powering farms and fishing boats before the diesel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hot-bulb_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q953276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hot_bulb_engine_953276"},{"id":"w_lohner_porsche_1042023","name":"Lohner-Porsche","year":1899,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Car model. 1899 – Ferdinand Porsche creates the Lohner–Porsche, the first hybrid vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: Ferdinand Porsche's 1900 Lohner-Porsche used in-hub electric motors, an early hybrid when fitted with an engine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lohner%E2%80%93Porsche","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1042023"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lohner_porsche_1042023"},{"id":"w_six_stroke_engine_680409","name":"Six-stroke engine","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Internal combustion engine designs. 1915 – Leonard Dyer invents a six-stroke engine, now known as the Crower six-stroke engine named after his reinventor Bruce Crower.","verdict":"Advance: Leonard Dyer's six-stroke cycle adds a steam stroke for efficiency, but it has remained experimental.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Six-stroke_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q680409"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_six_stroke_engine_680409"},{"id":"w_wankel_engine_182883","name":"Wankel engine","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Internal combustion engine using an eccentric rotary design in place of pistons. 1929 – Felix Wankel patents the Wankel rotary engine ( U.S. patent 2,988,008 ).","verdict":"Advance: Felix Wankel's rotary engine (patented 1929, running 1957) offered smooth compact power, used in Mazda sports cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wankel_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182883"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_wankel_engine_182883"},{"id":"w_bmw_801_796416","name":"BMW 801","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"German aircraft engine developed by BMW during World War II. 1939 – The BMW company's BMW 801 aviation radial engine pioneers the use of an early form of an engine control unit, the Kommandogerät.","verdict":"Advance: BMW's 801 radial powered the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, with an integrated engine control unit for simplified pilot workload.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BMW_801","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796416"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bmw_801_796416"},{"id":"w_miller_cycle_657886","name":"Miller cycle","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thermodynamic cycle. 1940s – Ralph Miller patents his Miller cycle engine.","verdict":"Advance: Ralph Miller's late-intake-valve cycle (patented 1947) raises engine efficiency and is now used in Mazda and Toyota hybrids.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Miller_cycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q657886"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_miller_cycle_657886"},{"id":"w_ion_thruster_205702","name":"Ion thruster","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electric propulsion method for spacecraft. 1964 – Ion engine invented.","verdict":"Advance: Ion thrusters, first flown on SERT-1 (1964), deliver ten times chemical-rocket efficiency; Dawn used them to orbit Vesta and Ceres.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ion_thruster","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205702"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ion_thruster_205702"},{"id":"w_rd_0410_4386493","name":"RD-0410","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Soviet nuclear thermal rocket engine. 1966 – RD-0410 nuclear thermal rocket engine was ground-tested.","verdict":"Advance: The Soviet RD-0410 nuclear thermal engine was ground-tested from the 1960s to the 1980s.","dependencies":["w_rocket_engine_335225"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RD-0410","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4386493"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_rd_0410_4386493"},{"id":"w_alternator_4992722","name":"Alternator","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric generator used in vehicles to power the electrical system. 1960s – alternators replace generators on automobile engines.","verdict":"Advance: Car alternators made vehicle electrical systems reliable.","dependencies":["w_electrical_generator_131502"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alternator_(automotive)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4992722"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_alternator_4992722"},{"id":"w_ignition_system_248382","name":"Ignition system","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Electric spark system to ignite a fuel-air mixture. 1970s – electronically controlled ignition appears in automobile engines.","verdict":"Advance: Electronic ignition (1970s) improved spark reliability and fuel efficiency.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ignition_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q248382"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ignition_system_248382"},{"id":"w_catalytic_converter_653807","name":"Catalytic converter","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Emission control device that treats engine exhaust gas by catalyzing pollutant-destroying redox reactions. 1975 – Catalytic converters are first widely introduced on production automobiles in the US to comply with tightening EPA regulations on auto exhaust.","verdict":"Advance: The 1975 catalytic converter cut car exhaust pollutants by about 90%, cleaning city air.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catalytic_converter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653807"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_catalytic_converter_653807"},{"id":"w_fuel_injection_308881","name":"Fuel injection","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Aspect of an internal combustion engine. 1980s – electronic fuel injection appears on gasoline automobile engines.","verdict":"Advance: Bosch's electronic fuel injection metered fuel precisely, cutting emissions and boosting efficiency.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuel_injection","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q308881"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fuel_injection_308881"},{"id":"w_hybrid_vehicle_193075","name":"Hybrid vehicle","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vehicle whose powertrain uses multiple power sources. 1990s – Hybrid vehicles that run on an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor charged by regenerative braking.","verdict":"Advance: Hybrid powertrains combine an engine with electric motors to recover braking energy and cut fuel use.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hybrid_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193075"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hybrid_vehicle_193075"},{"id":"w_discovery_of_the_neutron_19720529","name":"Discovery of the neutron","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scientific background leading to the discovery of the neutron and other subatomic particles. On January 1, Harold Urey, Ferdinand Brickwedde, and George M Murphy publish the discovery of deuterium.","verdict":"Advance: James Chadwick's 1932 discovery of the neutron opened nuclear physics and fission.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Discovery_of_the_neutron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19720529"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_discovery_of_the_neutron_19720529"},{"id":"w_cockcroft_walton_generator_1075349","name":"Cockcroft–Walton generator","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electric circuit which generates a high DC voltage from a low voltage AC or pulsing DC input. On April 30, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton publish the first disintegration of an atomic nucleus, popularly described as splitting the atom.","verdict":"Advance: Cockcroft and Walton's 1932 voltage multiplier split the lithium atom, the first artificially driven nuclear reaction.","dependencies":["w_particle_accelerator_130825"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1075349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_cockcroft_walton_generator_1075349"},{"id":"w_accelerator_driven_sub_critical_reactor_4672297","name":"Accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of nuclear reactor design. On June 24, Leo Szilard files the first patent for a nuclear reactor.","verdict":"Advance: A subcritical reactor design aimed at burning nuclear waste.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Accelerator-driven_subcritical_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4672297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_accelerator_driven_sub_critical_reactor_4672297"},{"id":"w_vemork_2296772","name":"Vemork","year":1911,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hydroelectric power station and museum in Tinn, Norway. In January, Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway operates the first large-scale heavy water production site, pioneered by Leif Tronstad.","verdict":"Advance: Vemork's 1911 hydroplant made fertilizer and later heavy water, sabotaged by Norwegian commandos in 1943.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vemork","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2296772"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_vemork_2296772"},{"id":"w_isotope_of_neptunium_2393673","name":"Isotope of neptunium","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"On May 27, Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson publish the discovery of neptunium at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. They use the 60-inch cyclotron produce a small sample of neptunium-239 via neutron bombardment of uranium-238.","verdict":"Advance: Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson's 1940 neptunium was the first transuranic element.","dependencies":["w_isotope_25276"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Isotopes_of_neptunium","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2393673"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_isotope_of_neptunium_2393673"},{"id":"w_spontaneous_fission_146682","name":"Spontaneous fission","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Form of radioactive decay found in very heavy chemical elements. On July 1, Georgy Flyorov and Konstantin Petrzhak publish the discovery of spontaneous fission, in uranium atoms insulated from cosmic rays 60 meters underground in the Dinamo station of the Moscow Metro.","verdict":"Advance: Flyorov and Petrzhak's 1940 discovery of spontaneous fission in uranium showed nuclei can split unprompted.","dependencies":["w_radioactive_decay_3332922","w_nuclear_fission_11429"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spontaneous_fission","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146682"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spontaneous_fission_146682"},{"id":"w_calutron_605089","name":"Calutron","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Mass spectrometer used to separate U-235 from U-238. On November 13, Alpha-I, the first calutron track, begins uranium enrichment operation at the Y-12 facility, the first electromagnetic separation plant.","verdict":"Compete: Electromagnetic uranium enrichment for the Manhattan Project.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Calutron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q605089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_calutron_605089"},{"id":"w_chicago_pile_1_284681","name":"Chicago Pile-1","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":7,"summary":"World's first nuclear reactor to achieve criticality, part of the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II. On December 2, Chicago Pile-1, the first artificial nuclear reactor, achieves criticality at the University of Chicago.","verdict":"Compete: The first self-sustaining chain reaction (Fermi); the start of the nuclear age.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chicago_Pile-1","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284681"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_chicago_pile_1_284681"},{"id":"w_lend_lease_207637","name":"Lend-Lease","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"United States foreign policy during World War II. In March, the US approves a Soviet request for over 0.3 tons of uranium compounds under the Lend-Lease program. General Leslie Groves hopes to hide the extent of the Manhattan Project, and reveal the location of Laboratory No. 2.","verdict":"Compete: US wartime aid that armed the Allies; logistics as decisive weapon.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lend-Lease","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207637"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_lend_lease_207637"},{"id":"w_x_10_graphite_reactor_4133095","name":"X-10 Graphite Reactor","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"World's second artificial nuclear reactor and the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation. On November 4, the X-10 Graphite Reactor achieves criticality at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee. It is the world's third reactor, the first built for continuous operation, the first reactor for the production of plutonium-239.","verdict":"Advance: Oak Ridge's X-10 (1943) produced the first gram quantities of plutonium and the first medical isotopes.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/X-10_Graphite_Reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4133095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_x_10_graphite_reactor_4133095"},{"id":"w_aqueous_homogeneous_reactor_4391458","name":"Aqueous homogeneous reactor","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Type of nuclear reactor. On May 9, LOPO (low-power), the first aqueous homogeneous reactor, the first reactor to use enriched uranium, and the first water-cooled and water-moderated reactor, achieves criticality at Los Alamos National Laboratory, using a sol…","verdict":"Advance: Early liquid-fuel reactor research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4391458"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_aqueous_homogeneous_reactor_4391458"},{"id":"w_chicago_pile_3_5095738","name":"Chicago Pile 3","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First heavy water reactor in the world, going critical on 15 May 1944. On May 15, Chicago Pile-3, the first heavy-water reactor, achieves criticality at Site A, Illinois. It uses deuterium oxide i.e. heavy water as a moderator instead of graphite, as well as a coolant.","verdict":"Advance: Chicago Pile-3 (1944) proved heavy-water moderation, the basis for Canada's CANDU reactors.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chicago_Pile-3","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5095738"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_chicago_pile_3_5095738"},{"id":"w_enriched_uranium_473252","name":"Enriched uranium","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Uranium in which the proportion of uranium-235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation. On September 16, S-50, the first and only full-scale liquid thermal diffusion plant, begins operation at Clinton Engineer Works, Tennessee.","verdict":"Advance: Enriching U-235, started at Oak Ridge in the 1940s, made reactor fuel possible and also weapons, with dual-use risks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Enriched_uranium","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q473252"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_enriched_uranium_473252"},{"id":"w_b_reactor_2472490","name":"B Reactor","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Decommissioned nuclear reactor at the Hanford Site in Washington, United States. On September 26, the B Reactor is started at Hanford Site, Washington. At 250 MWth, it is the first reactor to exceed 10 and 100 MWth and is considered the first large-scale reactor.","verdict":"Advance: First full-scale plutonium production reactor.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/B_Reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2472490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_b_reactor_2472490"},{"id":"w_fast_neutron_reactor_796821","name":"Fast-neutron reactor","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by fast neutrons. On January 20, a team led by Otto Robert Frisch achieves the first criticality burst in the Dragon Critical Assembly at Los Alamos National Laboratory, the first fast neutron reactor and first prompt criticality.","verdict":"Advance: Clementine at Los Alamos (1946) proved fast-neutron reactors work, pointing to breeders that extend fuel supply.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fast-neutron_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796821"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fast_neutron_reactor_796821"},{"id":"w_gaseous_diffusion_1138138","name":"Gaseous diffusion","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear Economy Process. On March 12, K-25, the first gaseous diffusion plant becomes fully operational at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee.","verdict":"Advance: Oak Ridge's K-25 (1945) enriched uranium by diffusion through barriers, the largest building in the world at the time.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gaseous_diffusion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1138138"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gaseous_diffusion_1138138"},{"id":"w_boeing_b_17_flying_fortress_185000","name":"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1935 bomber aircraft family by Boeing. On March 15, 612 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomb the Auergesellschaft plant of the Nazi German nuclear program, in Oranienburg.","verdict":"Compete: Boeing's B-17 (1935) carried the US daylight strategic bombing campaign over Europe, with heavy defensive guns but costly losses.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185000"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_boeing_b_17_flying_fortress_185000"},{"id":"w_zeep_970269","name":"ZEEP","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Canadian nuclear reactor. On September 5, ZEEP, the first reactor in Canada and outside the United States, achieves criticality at Chalk River Laboratories, on the Ontario side of the Ottawa River.","verdict":"Advance: Canada's ZEEP (1945) was the first reactor outside the US, starting Canada's CANDU programme.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ZEEP","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q970269"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_zeep_970269"},{"id":"w_f_1_4479886","name":"F-1","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear research reactor in Moscow, Russia. On December 25, F-1, the first reactor in the Soviet Union and in Europe, and outside North America, achieves criticality at the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow.","verdict":"Advance: Kurchatov's F-1 (1946) was the first Soviet reactor and still operated into the 2010s.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-1_%28nuclear_reactor%29","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4479886"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_f_1_4479886"},{"id":"w_nrx_1724378","name":"NRX","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Decommissioned heavy water moderated, light water cooled, nuclear research reactor at the Canadian Chalk River Laboratories (Canada). On July 22, NRX, the second reactor in Canada, achieves criticality at Chalk River Laboratories.","verdict":"Advance: Chalk River's NRX (1947) was the world's most powerful research reactor for years, and its 1952 accident trained Jimmy Carter.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NRX","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1724378"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nrx_1724378"},{"id":"w_experimental_breeder_reactor_i_1384384","name":"Experimental Breeder Reactor I","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Breeder reactor. On August 24, EBR-I, the first breeder reactor, producing more fuel than it consumes, begins power operation.","verdict":"Advance: First reactor to generate electricity (EBR-I, 1951).","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_I","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1384384"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_experimental_breeder_reactor_i_1384384"},{"id":"w_gas_cooled_reactor_3100709","name":"Gas-cooled reactor","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of nuclear reactor. On October 27, EL-2, the first gas-cooled reactor, achieves criticality at the Saclay Nuclear Research Centre, France.","verdict":"Advance: France's EL-2 at Saclay (1952) began the gas-cooled reactors that became the UK's Magnox and AGR fleet.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas-cooled_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3100709"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gas_cooled_reactor_3100709"},{"id":"w_atoms_for_peace_757644","name":"Atoms for Peace","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Speech by Dwight D. Eisenhower to the UN General Assembly in New York City on December 8, 1953. On December 8, US president Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers the Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City.","verdict":"Advance: Eisenhower's push to share civilian nuclear technology.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atoms_for_Peace","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q757644"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_atoms_for_peace_757644"},{"id":"w_nuclear_propulsion_1148508","name":"Nuclear propulsion","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Propulsion methods that use a nuclear reaction as the primary power source.","verdict":"Advance: The USS Nautilus (1955) proved nuclear propulsion, and submarines and carriers can now run for decades without refuelling.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_propulsion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1148508"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nuclear_propulsion_1148508"},{"id":"w_aircraft_nuclear_propulsion_3607198","name":"Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Cold War-era US nuclear aircraft propulsion experiments. On September 17, the Aircraft Shield Test Reactor, the first reactor operated during aircraft flight, begins test flights in the Convair NB-36H.","verdict":"Compete: Nuclear-powered bomber research; abandoned as impractical.","dependencies":["jet"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3607198"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_aircraft_nuclear_propulsion_3607198"},{"id":"w_gas_centrifuge_134141","name":"Gas centrifuge","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device for chemical separation. On November 2, the first gas centrifuge enrichment plant begins operation, in Leningrad, under a team led by Evgeni Kamenev.","verdict":"Advance: Gernot Zippe's Soviet-captive centrifuge design (1950s) now enriches most of the world's uranium at a fraction of diffusion's energy.","dependencies":["w_centrifuge_191134"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gas_centrifuge","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134141"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_gas_centrifuge_134141"},{"id":"w_organic_nuclear_reactor_389329","name":"Organic nuclear reactor","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of nuclear reactor. The OMRE, the first complete organic nuclear reactor, cooled and moderated by hydrocarbons, in this case terphenyls, achieves criticality at the Idaho National Laboratory.","verdict":"Advance: The organic-cooled OMRE (1957) tested hydrocarbon coolants; low pressure but fouling ended the design.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q389329"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_organic_nuclear_reactor_389329"},{"id":"w_qinshan_nuclear_power_plant_1483977","name":"Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear power plant in Zhejiang, China. On September 27, HWRR, a Soviet-supplied 7 MW heavy water research reactor, the first reactor in China, begins operation in Beijing.","verdict":"Advance: Qinshan (1991) was China's first domestically designed nuclear plant, beginning the world's fastest reactor build-out.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Qinshan_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1483977"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_qinshan_nuclear_power_plant_1483977"},{"id":"w_project_rover_7249269","name":"Project Rover","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"U.S. project to build a nuclear thermal rocket. On July 1, Kiwi A, the first nuclear thermal rocket, begins testing at Area 25, Nevada, under Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 's Project Rover.","verdict":"Advance: Project Rover's Kiwi reactors (from 1959) proved nuclear thermal rockets could double chemical-rocket efficiency.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Project_Rover","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7249269"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_project_rover_7249269"},{"id":"w_army_nuclear_power_program_689760","name":"Army Nuclear Power Program","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Historic reactor construction program. On January 3, the Army Nuclear Power Program 's SL-1 experiences a prompt critical accident, killing three workers, the first and only fatal nuclear power accident in the United States.","verdict":"Advance: US Army reactor program; the SL-1 accident shaped reactor safety.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Army_Nuclear_Power_Program","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q689760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_army_nuclear_power_program_689760"},{"id":"w_indian_point_energy_center_1516614","name":"Indian Point Energy Center","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear power plant. On September 16, Indian Point Unit 1, the first commercial reactor to use thorium fuel, begins commercial operation in New York.","verdict":"Advance: Indian Point Unit 1 (1962) supplied New York power and tested thorium fuel, then operated for decades until 2021.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Indian_Point_Energy_Center","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1516614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_indian_point_energy_center_1516614"},{"id":"w_n_reactor_4391462","name":"N-Reactor","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Nuclear reactor at the Hanford Site in Washington, United States. In December, the N reactor, the ninth at the Hanford Site, Washington, begins operation. At 4000 MWth it is one of the largest plutonium production reactors ever.","verdict":"Advance: Hanford's N Reactor (1963) made plutonium while generating electricity, a dual-purpose design.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4391462"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_n_reactor_4391462"},{"id":"w_rbmk_319449","name":"RBMK","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Commercial nuclear reactor design. The AMB-100, the first reactor to use supercritical water, begins operation at Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station in the Soviet Union.","verdict":"Advance: The RBMK's channel design was cheap to scale but had a positive void coefficient, which made the 1986 Chernobyl disaster possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RBMK","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319449"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_rbmk_319449"},{"id":"w_snap_10a_1143351","name":"SNAP-10A","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental nuclear reactor launched into space in 1965. On April 3, NASA launches into orbit the Snapshot satellite carrying SNAP-10A, the first reactor operated in space and via its cesium ion thruster also the first use of nuclear electric propulsion.","verdict":"Advance: SNAP-10A (1965) was the first nuclear reactor in orbit, powering a satellite for 43 days.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SNAP-10A","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143351"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_snap_10a_1143351"},{"id":"w_research_reactor_1438105","name":"Research reactor","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear reactors that serve primarily as a neutron source. A Soviet-supplied IR-2000 pool-type research reactor begins operation as the first reactor in North Korea, at the Nyongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center.","verdict":"Advance: Pool-type research reactors supply neutron beams for materials science and medical isotopes in dozens of countries.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Research_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1438105"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_research_reactor_1438105"},{"id":"w_avr_reactor_300178","name":"AVR reactor","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Prototype nuclear reactor in Germany. On August 28, the AVR, the first pebble-bed reactor, achieves criticality at Julich Research Center, West Germany. It was an early pioneer of helium-cooled high temperature designs.","verdict":"Advance: First pebble-bed reactor.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVR_reactor","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300178"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_avr_reactor_300178"},{"id":"w_uss_sturgis_4357176","name":"USS Sturgis","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scrapped floating nuclear power station. On January 24, MH-1A, the first floating nuclear power plant, achieves criticality. It was developed by the Army Nuclear Power Program at Gunston Cove, Virginia.","verdict":"Advance: The MH-1A aboard Sturgis (1968) powered the Panama Canal Zone, the first floating nuclear plant, a model Russia revived.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MH-1A","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4357176"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_uss_sturgis_4357176"},{"id":"w_bushehr_nuclear_power_plant_204637","name":"Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Power station in Bushehr County, Iran. In July, Kraftwerk Union AG begins work on the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran. It is the first commercial nuclear project in the Middle East.","verdict":"Advance: Germany's Kraftwerk Union began Bushehr in 1975, and Russia finished it in 2011, Iran's first nuclear power plant.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bushehr_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204637"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_bushehr_nuclear_power_plant_204637"},{"id":"w_nuclear_reprocessing_1208852","name":"Nuclear reprocessing","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Process to separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel. On October 28, US president Gerald Ford indefinitely suspends nuclear spent fuel reprocessing, and encourages other nations to do the same.","verdict":"Advance: Hanford's 1944 plutonium separation was the first industrial reprocessing; France now reuses fuel to cut waste volume.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_reprocessing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1208852"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_nuclear_reprocessing_1208852"},{"id":"w_three_mile_island_nuclear_generating_sta_862589","name":"Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear power plant. On March 28, Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station 's Unit 2 reactor experiences a partial core meltdown, in Pennsylvania, US. It is the worst nuclear accident in US history based on radioactive material released.","verdict":"Drift: A partial meltdown that hurt no one but froze US reactor construction for decades.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three_Mile_Island_Nuclear_Generating_Station","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862589"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_three_mile_island_nuclear_generating_sta_862589"},{"id":"w_operation_opera_725043","name":"Operation Opera","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Israeli air strike carried out on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an Iraqi nuclear reactor Osirak. On June 7, the Israeli Air Force carries out Operation Opera, bombing an unfinished secret Iraqi nuclear reactor. Ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian engineer were killed.","verdict":"Compete: Israel's 1981 Osirak strike destroyed Iraq's French-built reactor before it was loaded with fuel, the defining case of counter-proliferation by force.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_Opera","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725043"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_operation_opera_725043"},{"id":"w_superph_nix_1739389","name":"Superphénix","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fast breeder reactor in France. In September, Superphénix, the largest fast reactor and breeder reactor ever, at 1,242 MWe, achieves criticality at Creys-Malville in France.","verdict":"Advance: Superphénix (1985), the largest breeder ever built, reached full power but closed in 1998 amid politics and leaks.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Superph%C3%A9nix","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1739389"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_superph_nix_1739389"},{"id":"w_chernobyl_nuclear_power_plant_215419","name":"Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":4,"summary":"Decommissioned nuclear power station near the city of Pripyat, Ukraine, known by Chernobyl disaster. On April 26, in the Ukrainian SSR, Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Unit 4 experiences a core meltdown during a test, the first Level 7 nuclear accident on the International Nuclear Event Scale.","verdict":"Drift: An RBMK plant whose 1986 disaster came from a flawed design and safety culture; it set nuclear power back for decades.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215419"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_chernobyl_nuclear_power_plant_215419"},{"id":"w_megatons_to_megawatts_program_2813281","name":"Megatons to Megawatts Program","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Arms control agreement between Russia and US. On February 18, the United States and Russia sign the Megatons to Megawatts Program agreement.","verdict":"Advance: Russian warhead uranium fuelled 10% of US electricity for 20 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2813281"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_megatons_to_megawatts_program_2813281"},{"id":"w_agreed_framework_352182","name":"Agreed Framework","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1994 treaty between the United States and North Korea. On October 21, the United States and North Korea sign the Agreed Framework.","verdict":"Advance: US–North Korea deal to freeze plutonium production; it later collapsed.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agreed_Framework","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q352182"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_agreed_framework_352182"},{"id":"w_kashiwazaki_kariwa_nuclear_power_plant_725100","name":"Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear power station in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Largest nuclear power station in the world.. On July 2, Unit 7 begins commercial operation at Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, Japan, making it the largest nuclear power plant ever by net electrical power at 7,965 MWe.","verdict":"Advance: Kashiwazaki-Kariwa (from 1985), the world's largest nuclear plant at about 8 GW, was idled after Fukushima and is restarting.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kashiwazaki-Kariwa_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725100"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_kashiwazaki_kariwa_nuclear_power_plant_725100"},{"id":"w_htr_10_5636124","name":"HTR-10","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Prototype pebble bed reactor. On December 21, the HTR-10 prototype high-temperature helium-cooled pebble-bed reactor achieves criticality at Tsinghua University, China.","verdict":"Advance: China's HTR-10 pebble-bed reactor (2000) proved passive safety and led to the 2023 Shidaowan commercial plant.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HTR-10","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5636124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_htr_10_5636124"},{"id":"w_silex_process_7514865","name":"Silex Process","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Process for isotope separation used to produce enriched uranium. On June 26, the United States Department of Energy classifies the SILEX process of uranium laser enrichment, originally developed by the Australian company Silex Systems.","verdict":"Advance: Australia's SILEX laser enrichment (licensed in the US in 2000) promises lower-cost fuel, with proliferation concerns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Separation_of_isotopes_by_laser_excitation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7514865"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_silex_process_7514865"},{"id":"w_fukushima_daiichi_nuclear_power_plant_114295","name":"Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Nuclear power plant in Japan. On March 11, during electrical outage from the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Fukushima Daiichi reactor units 1, 2, and 3 experience partial core meltdowns, and release radioactive material into the environment.","verdict":"Advance: A large nuclear plant; the 2011 tsunami meltdown led to sweeping safety reforms and political retreat.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fukushima_Daiichi_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q114295"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_fukushima_daiichi_nuclear_power_plant_114295"},{"id":"w_burevestnik_55657350","name":"Burevestnik","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear-powered cruise missile from Russia. In November, Russia completes the first test of the 9M730 Burevestnik, the first nuclear-powered cruise missile and the first nuclear-powered aircraft of any kind.","verdict":"Compete: Russia's nuclear-powered cruise missile, tested from 2017, promises unlimited range but has a record of failures, including the fatal 2019 Nyonoksa accident.","dependencies":["cruise_missile"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/9M730_Burevestnik","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55657350"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_burevestnik_55657350"},{"id":"w_taishan_nuclear_power_plant_1519910","name":"Taishan Nuclear Power Plant","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear power plant. In December, the Taishan 1 EPR begins operation in Guangdong, China. At 1660 MWe it is the largest nuclear reactor unit by electrical power ever.","verdict":"Advance: Taishan 1 (2018) was the first EPR to operate, at 1,660 MWe the largest single generating unit in the world.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taishan_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1519910"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_taishan_nuclear_power_plant_1519910"},{"id":"w_turkey_point_nuclear_generating_station_1739486","name":"Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear and natural gas power plant in Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States. On December 8, the US NRC grants a 20-year extension to Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station Units 3 and 4, the first US reactors licensed for an 80-year lifetime.","verdict":"Advance: Turkey Point, licensed in 1972, sits on Biscayne Bay and pioneered cooling canals that host crocodiles.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turkey_Point_Nuclear_Generating_Station","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1739486"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_turkey_point_nuclear_generating_station_1739486"},{"id":"w_akademik_lomonosov_673826","name":"Akademik Lomonosov","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Russian floating nuclear power plant. On December 19, Akademik Lomonosov, the first commercial floating nuclear power plant, begins operation in Chukotka, Russia.","verdict":"Advance: First floating nuclear power plant; power for remote Arctic ports.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Akademik_Lomonosov","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q673826"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_akademik_lomonosov_673826"},{"id":"w_zaporizhzhia_nuclear_power_plant_crisis_113626814","name":"Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant crisis","year":2022,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Act of nuclear terrorism by Russia during the Russian-Ukrainian war (2022). On March 4, Russian Armed Forces capture Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant and thermal plant, the first military attack and capture of operational commercial nuclear reactors.","verdict":"Drift: Russian forces seized Europe's largest nuclear plant; reactors as hostages in war.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zaporizhzhia_Nuclear_Power_Plant_crisis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113626814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_zaporizhzhia_nuclear_power_plant_crisis_113626814"},{"id":"w_zaporizhzhia_nuclear_power_plant_909477","name":"Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Nuclear-power plant in Enerhodar, Ukraine. On September 11, Unit 6 at Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, the last operating reactor, is disconnected from the grid.","verdict":"Advance: Zaporizhzhia's six reactors (to 1995) make it Europe's largest nuclear plant, occupied by Russian forces since 2022.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zaporizhzhia_Nuclear_Power_Plant","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q909477"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_zaporizhzhia_nuclear_power_plant_909477"},{"id":"w_mass_energy_equivalence_35875","name":"Mass–energy equivalence","year":1905,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical law relating mass to energy. 1905 – Albert Einstein proposes mass–energy equivalence, deriving from his theory of special relativity, which he had developed earlier that year.","verdict":"Advance: Einstein's 1905 E = mc² explained the energy of nuclear reactions and the Sun.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35875"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mass_energy_equivalence_35875"},{"id":"w_isotope_25276","name":"Isotope","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Nuclides having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. 1912 – J.J. Thomson discovers isotopes through experiments with neon.","verdict":"Advance: Frederick Soddy and J. J. Thomson's 1913 isotopes explained atomic weights, enabling radiometric dating.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Isotope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25276"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_isotope_25276"},{"id":"w_cordite_905964","name":"Cordite","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Family of smokeless propellants. 1924 – Writing for The Pall Mall Gazette, Winston Churchill speculates \"Might a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of buildings – nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of…","verdict":"Compete: Abel and Dewar's 1889 cordite was a stable smokeless propellant that armed the Royal Navy and British rifles through two world wars.","dependencies":["ammonia_explosives"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cordite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905964"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_cordite_905964"},{"id":"w_synthetic_element_755992","name":"Synthetic element","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical element that does not occur naturally on Earth, and can only be created artificially. 1934 – Enrico Fermi conducts experiments in which he exposes uranium and thorium to neutrons to create distinct new substances. Although he is unaware at the time, he creates the first synthetic elements, the transuranium elements.","verdict":"Advance: Fermi's 1934 neutron bombardment and the 1937 creation of technetium began synthetic elements, extending the periodic table to oganesson.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Synthetic_element","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q755992"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_synthetic_element_755992"},{"id":"w_italian_racial_laws_541880","name":"Italian Racial Laws","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Italian Racial Law 1938. 1938 – Fermi is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his achievements, and flees from Fascist Italy to the United States due to the racial laws ratified under pressure from Nazi Germany.","verdict":"Drift: Antisemitic laws drove Fermi and other scientists abroad; persecution as brain drain.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Italian_racial_laws","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q541880"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_italian_racial_laws_541880"},{"id":"w_maud_committee_1659194","name":"MAUD Committee","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"British nuclear weapons research group, 1940-1941. 1940 – April – The MAUD Committee (Military Application of Uranium Detonation) is established by Henry Tizard and the British Ministry of Aircraft Production to investigate feasibility of an atomic bomb.","verdict":"Compete: The MAUD Committee's 1941 report concluded that a uranium bomb was feasible, persuading Britain and then the US to build it.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MAUD_Committee","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1659194"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_maud_committee_1659194"},{"id":"w_nuclear_fission_product_1094166","name":"Nuclear fission product","year":1940,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Product of nuclear fission. 1940 – July – The paper explaining that Dr. Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered symmetric fission on the previously described test appeared in Nature.","verdict":"Compete: Yoshio Nishina's 1940 identification of fission products advanced Japan's nuclear physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_fission_product","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1094166"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nuclear_fission_product_1094166"},{"id":"w_operation_barbarossa_83055","name":"Operation Barbarossa","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Invasion of the Soviet Union by the Nazi German-led Axis powers in Europe. 1941 – June 22 – Operation Barbarossa, the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, begins. Soviet nuclear research is subsequently delayed.","verdict":"Compete: Germany's June 1941 invasion of the USSR, the largest land campaign in history, failed before Moscow and turned the war against the Axis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_Barbarossa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_operation_barbarossa_83055"},{"id":"w_tube_alloys_1137385","name":"Tube Alloys","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Military R&D program codename. 1942 – The United Kingdom opts to support the United States' efforts to build a bomb rather than to pursue its own nuclear weapons program due to wartime economic damage, and allows the Tube Alloys programme to be subsumed into the Ameri…","verdict":"Compete: Britain's Tube Alloys bomb project merged into the Manhattan Project under the 1943 Quebec Agreement, contributing key scientists.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tube_Alloys","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137385"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_tube_alloys_1137385"},{"id":"w_reichsforschungsrat_2139487","name":"Reichsforschungsrat","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Reich Research Council. 1942 – July – The Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office) relinquishes control of the German nuclear energy project to the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council), essentially making it only a research project with objectiv…","verdict":"Compete: The Reich Research Council marshalled German science for war from 1937, its uranium and rocketry work the model of directed military research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsforschungsrat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2139487"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1937)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_reichsforschungsrat_2139487"},{"id":"w_office_of_strategic_services_658626","name":"Office of Strategic Services","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"United States intelligence agency (1942-1945). 1942 – November - The first uranium oxide shipment leaves the Congolese port of Lobito (it will later change to Matadi because of better security). Only two shipments will ever be lost at sea.","verdict":"Compete: The Office of Strategic Services ran sabotage, analysis and agent networks in WWII, and its veterans founded the CIA in 1947.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Office_of_Strategic_Services","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q658626"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_office_of_strategic_services_658626"},{"id":"w_nuclear_reaction_238323","name":"Nuclear reaction","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Process in which two nuclei collide to produce one or more nuclides. 1942 – December 2 – Enrico Fermi and his team achieve the first controlled nuclear reaction at Chicago Pile-1 constructed at the University of Chicago in a squash court underneath Stagg Field.","verdict":"Advance: The first nuclear reaction under human control was a sustained chain reaction in Chicago on 2 December 1942, which showed that fission could be harnessed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_reaction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q238323"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nuclear_reaction_238323"},{"id":"w_fu_go_balloon_bomb_695154","name":"Fu-Go balloon bomb","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Japanese World War II fire balloon weapon. 1945 – March 10 – A Japanese Fu-Go balloon bomb nearly knocks out electrical power to the Hanford plant.","verdict":"Compete: Japan launched about 9,300 paper balloon bombs across the Pacific on the jet stream, killing six civilians in Oregon in 1945.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fu-Go_balloon_bomb","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695154"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_fu_go_balloon_bomb_695154"},{"id":"w_operation_paperclip_444698","name":"Operation Paperclip","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Secret program of the US to bring German scientists, including former Nazis, into the US to work for the US government. 1945 – May – The United States captures a number of important German rocket scientists, including Wernher von Braun, for work on American missile programs through Operation Paperclip.","verdict":"Compete: Recruiting German rocket scientists sped the US space and missile programs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_Paperclip","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q444698"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_operation_paperclip_444698"},{"id":"w_nuclear_explosion_2656967","name":"Nuclear explosion","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":6,"summary":"Explosion that occurs as a result of rapid release of energy from a nuclear reaction (fission or fusion). 1945 – July 16 – The first nuclear explosion, the Trinity test of an implosion-type plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as \" the gadget \", near Alamogordo, New Mexico.","verdict":"Compete: The Trinity test (16 July 1945) released 21 kilotons of energy from a few kilograms of plutonium, opening both the nuclear arms race and nuclear power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_explosion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2656967"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_explosion_2656967"},{"id":"w_potsdam_conference_151187","name":"Potsdam Conference","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Meeting of the Allied heads of state near the end of World War II. 1945 – July 22 – Truman alludes to Stalin about having successfully detonated an atomic bomb at the Potsdam Conference.","verdict":"Compete: At Potsdam in July 1945, the Allies set terms for occupied Germany, while Truman's hint about the bomb opened the nuclear diplomacy of the Cold War.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Potsdam_Conference","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151187"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_potsdam_conference_151187"},{"id":"w_little_boy_181013","name":"Little Boy (Hiroshima bomb)","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"US nuclear bomb. 1945 – August 6 – \" Little Boy \", a gun-type uranium-235 weapon, is dropped on Hiroshima, Japan.","verdict":"Compete: The gun-type uranium bomb destroyed Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, killing about 70,000–140,000 people and helping end the war.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Little_Boy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_little_boy_181013"},{"id":"w_soviet_atomic_bomb_project_2006230","name":"Soviet atomic bomb project","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet program to develop nuclear weapons during World War II. 1945 – August – The Soviet atomic bomb project is accelerated under a Special Commission chaired by Lavrentiy Beria. The program would be heavily reliant on espionage on the Manhattan Project, especially by Fuchs and Theodore A. Hall.","verdict":"Compete: The Soviet bomb (RDS-1, August 1949), aided by espionage, ended the US monopoly and locked in nuclear bipolarity.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2006230"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_soviet_atomic_bomb_project_2006230"},{"id":"w_command_and_control_21662260","name":"Command and control","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Military exercise of authority by a commanding officer over assigned forces. 1946 – March 26 – The Strategic Air Command is established in the U.S. Army Air Forces for command and control of nuclear weapons.","verdict":"Compete: Unified command and control, formalized with Strategic Air Command in 1946, created the communications backbone for nuclear-age forces.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Command_and_control","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21662260"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_command_and_control_21662260"},{"id":"w_united_nations_atomic_energy_commission_677422","name":"United Nations Atomic Energy Commission","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Commission established to deal with the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy. 1946 – June – First meeting of the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which was established by the first resolution of the U.N. General Assembly, is held.","verdict":"Advance: The UN's 1946 commission was the first attempt at international control of the atom; the Baruch Plan failed in it, but it set up the later IAEA.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Atomic_Energy_Commission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q677422"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_united_nations_atomic_energy_commission_677422"},{"id":"w_baruch_plan_3082055","name":"Baruch Plan","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Proposed U.S. atomic energy plan following World War II by Bernard Baruch. 1946 – June – The Soviet Union rejects the Baruch Plan.","verdict":"Advance: A failed proposal to put atomic energy under international control.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Baruch_Plan","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3082055"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_baruch_plan_3082055"},{"id":"w_b_36_peacemaker_332657","name":"B-36 Peacemaker","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Strategic bomber. 1946 – August – The Convair B-36 Peacemaker is introduced as the first purpose-built nuclear bomber.","verdict":"Compete: Intercontinental nuclear bomber.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332657"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_b_36_peacemaker_332657"},{"id":"w_r_1_938603","name":"R-1","year":1948,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ballistic missile family. 1948 – September – The Soviet Union launches its first ballistic missile, a reverse-engineered version of the V-2 rocket later renamed the R-1 rocket.","verdict":"Compete: Korolev's R-1, a Soviet-built V-2, gave the USSR the engineering base for the R-7 that later launched Sputnik.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R-1_(missile)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q938603"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_r_1_938603"},{"id":"w_nuclear_weapons_testing_210112","name":"Nuclear weapons testing","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Experiment carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. 1949 – August 29 – The Soviet Union conducts its first atomic test, RDS-1 (nicknamed Joe 1 by the Americans).","verdict":"Compete: More than 2,000 nuclear tests, atmospheric until the 1963 Partial Test Ban, refined designs at the cost of fallout exposure.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_explosion_2656967"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_weapons_testing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210112"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_weapons_testing_210112"},{"id":"w_united_states_congress_joint_committee_o_7889644","name":"United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"U.S. congressional committee (1946-77). 1949 – September through December – Debate occurs within the Truman administration over whether to authorize the development of a hydrogen bomb.","verdict":"Advance: Congress's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy oversaw the nuclear programme from 1946 to 1977 and pushed both the hydrogen bomb and civilian reactors.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Committee_on_Atomic_Energy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7889644"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1946)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_united_states_congress_joint_committee_o_7889644"},{"id":"w_operation_dropshot_2026067","name":"Operation Dropshot","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"United States Department of Defense codename. 1949 – The U.S. Department of Defense prepares Operation Dropshot, a contingency plan for a nuclear and conventional war against the Soviet Union.","verdict":"Compete: Dropshot (1949) planned a US–Allied war with the USSR using 300 atomic bombs, showing early nuclear-war planning doctrine.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_Dropshot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2026067"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_operation_dropshot_2026067"},{"id":"w_truman_doctrine_171375","name":"Truman Doctrine","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"United States Cold War policy to contain communism in Europe and elsewhere.","verdict":"Compete: Truman's 1947 aid to Greece and Turkey committed the US to containing Soviet expansion, the strategy that structured four decades of Cold War competition.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Truman_Doctrine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171375"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_truman_doctrine_171375"},{"id":"w_nsc_68_3367946","name":"NSC-68","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Top secret policy paper. 1950 – April 7 – The National Security Council issues its classified NSC 68 policy paper advocating for the United States to expand its conventional and nuclear arms in response to the Cold War and the decline of former great powers such…","verdict":"Compete: The US Cold War containment blueprint and arms buildup.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NSC_68","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3367946"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_nsc_68_3367946"},{"id":"w_julius_and_ethel_rosenberg_769097","name":"Atomic espionage (Rosenbergs)","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"American couple executed for spying for the Soviet Union. 1950 – Klaus Fuchs and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are arrested in the United States for leaking atomic secrets to the Soviet Union.","verdict":"Compete: Soviet atomic spying shortened the US monopoly; espionage as an arms race accelerant.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q769097"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_julius_and_ethel_rosenberg_769097"},{"id":"w_conelrad_4330233","name":"CONELRAD","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Former method of emergency broadcasting in the United States. 1951 – President Truman establishes the CONELRAD emergency broadcasting system to alert the United States to an enemy attack. The system is later succeeded by the Emergency Broadcast System in 1963 and the Emergency Alert System in 1997.","verdict":"Advance: CONELRAD (1951) shut down normal broadcasting in an attack so bombers could not home in, and it led to the Emergency Alert System.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CONELRAD","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4330233"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_conelrad_4330233"},{"id":"w_uranium_ore_1542864","name":"Uranium ore","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Economically recoverable concentrations of uranium within the Earth's crust. 1951 – China and the Soviet Union sign an agreement whereby China would supply uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance in producing nuclear weapons.","verdict":"Compete: Securing uranium ore became a strategic race, as the 1950 Sino-Soviet agreements and Congo's Shinkolobwe mine showed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Uranium_ore","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1542864"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_uranium_ore_1542864"},{"id":"w_nuclear_weapon_design_15221814","name":"Nuclear weapon design","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Process by which nuclear WMDs are designed and produced. 1952 – October – The United Kingdom conducts Operation Hurricane, the first test of a British nuclear weapon. The plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon was detonated in a lagoon between the Montebello Islands, Western Australia.","verdict":"Compete: The Teller–Ulam staged design, first tested in Ivy Mike (1952, 10.4 megatons), made thermonuclear weapons of nearly unlimited yield possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_weapon_design","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15221814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_weapon_design_15221814"},{"id":"w_mgr_1_honest_john_1300186","name":"MGR-1 Honest John","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1953 short-range family by Douglas. 1953 – The first nuclear-tipped rockets are deployed by the United States. The MGR-1 Honest John is such as example.","verdict":"Compete: The unguided Honest John (1953) was America's first nuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocket, deployed to deter Soviet armour in Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MGR-1_Honest_John","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1300186"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_mgr_1_honest_john_1300186"},{"id":"w_pgm_11_redstone_400515","name":"PGM-11 Redstone","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Short-range ballistic missile. 1953 – August 20 – The United States test-fires the PGM-11 Redstone rocket, its first ballistic missile.","verdict":"Compete: Von Braun's Redstone, first fired in 1953, became the booster for Alan Shepard's 1961 Mercury flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PGM-11_Redstone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q400515"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_pgm_11_redstone_400515"},{"id":"w_english_electric_canberra_520964","name":"English Electric Canberra","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1949 bomber aircraft family. 1954 – British English Electric Canberra bombers of the Royal Air Force are outfitted with atomic bombs.","verdict":"Compete: The Canberra, Britain's first jet bomber, set altitude records and served for 57 years, including US-built B-57 copies.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/English_Electric_Canberra","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q520964"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_english_electric_canberra_520964"},{"id":"w_lockheed_ec_121_warning_star_862435","name":"Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1949 early warning and control aircraft family by Lockheed. 1954 – The Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star is introduced as the United States' primary airborne early warning and control aircraft.","verdict":"Compete: The EC-121 Warning Star's radar extended early warning beyond the coastline, an ancestor of the AWACS.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lockheed_EC-121_Warning_Star","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862435"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_lockheed_ec_121_warning_star_862435"},{"id":"w_france_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_28053842","name":"French nuclear deterrent","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Projects and lists of French weapons of mass destruction. 1954 – December 26 – The French nuclear weapons program is secretly established by Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France.","verdict":"Compete: France's Force de frappe, tested at Reggane in 1960, gave Paris an independent deterrent outside NATO's integrated command.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28053842"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_france_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_28053842"},{"id":"w_boeing_b_52_stratofortress_174534","name":"Boeing B-52 Stratofortress","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Bomber aircraft family. 1955 – February – The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress replaces the B-36 as the U.S. Air Force's primary strategic nuclear bomber.","verdict":"Compete: In service since 1955 and planned to fly into the 2050s, the B-52 is the longest-serving combat aircraft type ever.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174534"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_boeing_b_52_stratofortress_174534"},{"id":"w_purex_386477","name":"PUREX","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Plutonium uranium reduction extraction. 1955 – India purchases a PUREX reactor from Canada and the United States, and constructs the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay.","verdict":"Compete: The PUREX solvent process separates plutonium and uranium from spent fuel, used for both bombs and civilian recycling of reactor fuel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PUREX","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q386477"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_purex_386477"},{"id":"w_myasishchev_m_4_molot_182124","name":"Myasishchev M-4 Molot","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Bomber aircraft family. 1955 – The Soviet Union introduces a modified version of the Myasishchev M-4 bomber capable of striking targets in continental North America.","verdict":"Compete: The Myasishchev M-4 was the first Soviet jet strategic bomber; it fell short of intercontinental range and was converted into a tanker.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Myasishchev_M-4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_myasishchev_m_4_molot_182124"},{"id":"w_tupolev_tu_95_181815","name":"Tupolev Tu-95","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Bomber aircraft family. 1956 – The Tupolev Tu-95, the primary intercontinental strategic bomber of the Soviet Air Forces, enters service.","verdict":"Compete: The turboprop Tu-95 \"Bear\" (1956) has flown longer than almost any other bomber and still patrols with cruise missiles.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tupolev_Tu-95","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181815"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_tupolev_tu_95_181815"},{"id":"w_blue_steel_791480","name":"Blue Steel","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Type of Nuclear stand-off missile. 1956 – Development on the Avro Blue Steel air-to-surface missile for the British \" V-bomber \" fleet begins.","verdict":"Compete: Avro's Blue Steel stand-off missile let V-bombers launch nuclear strikes from beyond Soviet air defences, in service from 1963.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blue_Steel_(missile)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q791480"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_blue_steel_791480"},{"id":"w_pgm_19_jupiter_1473449","name":"PGM-19 Jupiter","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"American ballistic missile. 1956 – The nuclear-capable PGM-19 Jupiter medium-range ballistic missile is created from the Redstone rocket.","verdict":"Compete: The Jupiter, deployed in Italy and Turkey, became a bargaining chip quietly removed after the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PGM-19_Jupiter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1473449"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_pgm_19_jupiter_1473449"},{"id":"w_xlim_49_nike_zeus_3820346","name":"XLIM-49 Nike-Zeus","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Anti-ballistic missile system developed by the US Army in the 1950s and 1960s. 1957 – In response to the new threat of Soviet ICBMs, the U.S. Army accelerates production on the Nike Zeus missile, an anti-ballistic missile designed to intercept ICBMs in mid-air.","verdict":"Compete: Nike Zeus, which first intercepted an ICBM in a 1962 test, was the first anti-ballistic-missile system and led to the 1972 ABM Treaty.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nike_Zeus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3820346"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_xlim_49_nike_zeus_3820346"},{"id":"w_graphite_moderated_reactor_1395559","name":"Graphite moderated reactor","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of nuclear reactor. 1957 – October 10 – The Windscale fire occurs in Seascale, Cumbria after a graphite-moderated reactor built for the British hydrogen bomb project catches fire, resulting in the release of radioactive contamination across the United King…","verdict":"Advance: Graphite-moderated reactors made plutonium and power, but the 1957 Windscale fire and Chernobyl showed their risks.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_reactor_80877"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Graphite-moderated_reactor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1395559"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_graphite_moderated_reactor_1395559"},{"id":"w_sm_65_atlas_7578232","name":"SM-65 Atlas","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Family of American intercontinental ballistic missiles; first operational ICBM. 1957 – December 12 – The SM-65 Atlas, the first U.S. ICBM, is launched.","verdict":"Compete: Convair's Atlas, operational in 1959, was the first US ICBM and later carried John Glenn into orbit in 1962.","dependencies":["icbm"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SM-65_Atlas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7578232"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_sm_65_atlas_7578232"},{"id":"w_us_uk_mutual_defence_agreement_368235","name":"US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear weapons security pact. 1958 – The United States and the United Kingdom sign the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement.","verdict":"Compete: The 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement let the two nations share nuclear warhead designs and materials, the closest nuclear alliance there is.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/US%E2%80%93UK_Mutual_Defence_Agreement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q368235"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_us_uk_mutual_defence_agreement_368235"},{"id":"w_project_a119_168572","name":"Project A119","year":1958,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Secret plan developed in 1958 by the United States Air Force aiming to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon. 1958 – The U.S. Air Force drafts Project A119, a classified plan to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon. The plan is quickly cancelled in favor of a Moon landing.","verdict":"Compete: Project A119, a 1958 US plan to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon as a show of strength, was shelved, a symbol of Cold War posturing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Project_A119","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168572"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_project_a119_168572"},{"id":"w_pgm_17_thor_766026","name":"PGM-17 Thor","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"First operational ballistic missile deployed by the U.S. Air Force. 1956 - First launch of PGM-17 Thor, the first US ballistic missile and forerunner of the Delta space launch rockets","verdict":"Compete: The Thor, first launched in 1957, was deployed in Britain and later became the core of the Delta launch-vehicle family.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/PGM-17_Thor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q766026"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_pgm_17_thor_766026"},{"id":"w_antarctic_treaty_system_182814","name":"Antarctic Treaty System","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"International treaties concerning Antarctica. 1959 – Nuclear tests in Antarctica are banned under the Antarctic Treaty.","verdict":"Advance: Demilitarized and preserved Antarctica for science by treaty.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Antarctic_Treaty_System","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_antarctic_treaty_system_182814"},{"id":"w_blue_streak_885899","name":"Blue Streak","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ballistic missile. 1960 – The United Kingdom cancels the De Havilland Blue Streak medium-range ballistic missile in favor of the American-produced Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile, ending its attempts to produce an independent deliver…","verdict":"Compete: Britain cancelled Blue Streak as a missile in 1960; its stages flew in the Europa rocket, a precursor of the European Space Agency.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Blue_Streak_(missile)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q885899"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_blue_streak_885899"},{"id":"w_anti_aircraft_warfare_86739852","name":"Anti-aircraft warfare","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Combat operations and doctrine designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action.","verdict":"Compete: Air defense doctrine and weapons against aircraft.","dependencies":["airplane"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anti-aircraft_warfare","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q86739852"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_anti_aircraft_warfare_86739852"},{"id":"w_lockheed_u_2_189064","name":"Lockheed U-2","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1955 reconnaissance aircraft family by Lockheed.","verdict":"Compete: The U-2 flew at 70,000 feet over the USSR from 1956, giving the US key intelligence; Gary Powers' 1960 shoot-down caused a crisis.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lockheed_U-2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189064"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_lockheed_u_2_189064"},{"id":"w_fallout_shelter_1571844","name":"Fallout shelter","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Enclosed space specially designed to protect occupants from radioactive debris or fallout. 1961 - President Kennedy announces that the federal government will begin the construction of fallout shelters.","verdict":"Advance: Fallout shelters, promoted by Kennedy in 1961, offered radiation protection and civil-defence planning that are relevant to any nuclear accident.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fallout_shelter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1571844"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_fallout_shelter_1571844"},{"id":"w_mutual_assured_destruction_637802","name":"Mutual assured destruction","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Doctrine of military strategy in which a full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender. 1962 – The term \" mutually-assured destruction \" is coined.","verdict":"Compete: Mutual assured destruction made nuclear war suicidal for both sides; in effect it kept great-power peace through the Cold War.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q637802"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_mutual_assured_destruction_637802"},{"id":"w_ugm_27_polaris_859041","name":"UGM-27 Polaris","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Two-stage solid-fuel nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile. 1962 – The Lockheed UGM-27 Polaris, the U.S. Navy's first submarine-launched ballistic missile, is introduced.","verdict":"Compete: Polaris (1960) put 16 nuclear missiles on each hidden submarine, making a disarming first strike impossible and deterrence more stable.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/UGM-27_Polaris","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q859041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_ugm_27_polaris_859041"},{"id":"w_lgm_30_minuteman_861662","name":"LGM-30 Minuteman","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"1961 intercontinental ballistic missile family by Boeing. 1962 – The Boeing LGM-30 Minuteman-I, the first American ICBM using liquid-propellant rocket to be able to have an immediate launch, is introduced.","verdict":"Compete: Solid-fuel Minuteman missiles, deployed in 1962, could launch within minutes, and upgraded versions remain on US alert.","dependencies":["icbm","w_solid_propellant_rocket_280602"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LGM-30_Minuteman","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q861662"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_lgm_30_minuteman_861662"},{"id":"w_high_altitude_nuclear_explosion_3780403","name":"High-altitude nuclear explosion","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear detonations in the upper layers of Earth's atmosphere.","verdict":"Compete: Starfish Prime (1962) knocked out Hawaiian streetlights and satellites 1,400 km away, revealing the electromagnetic-pulse threat.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_explosion_2656967","w_nuclear_weapons_testing_210112"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3780403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_high_altitude_nuclear_explosion_3780403"},{"id":"w_r_12_dvina_44435","name":"R-12 Dvina","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile.","verdict":"Compete: The R-12 medium-range missiles placed in Cuba in 1962 triggered the Cuban Missile Crisis, the closest the world came to nuclear war.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R-12_Dvina","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44435"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_r_12_dvina_44435"},{"id":"w_partial_nuclear_test_ban_treaty_278960","name":"Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1963 limited test ban treaty. 1963 – August – The Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water opens for signatures. The treaty limited nuclear weapons tests to underground detonations.","verdict":"Advance: Banned atmospheric nuclear tests and ended fallout from testing.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278960"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_partial_nuclear_test_ban_treaty_278960"},{"id":"w_nuclear_sharing_594267","name":"Nuclear sharing","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Concept in NATO's policy of nuclear deterrence. 1963 – American nuclear weapons are deployed at Canadian Armed Forces bases in West Germany, through the NATO nuclear sharing program. Additional American nuclear weapons systems are deployed in Canada under U.S. control through NORAD.","verdict":"Compete: NATO nuclear sharing put US weapons on allied aircraft, binding Europe to US deterrence while capping proliferation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_sharing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q594267"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_sharing_594267"},{"id":"w_r_17_elbrus_1968094","name":"R-17 Elbrus","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Tactical ballistic missile initially developed by the Soviet Union. 1964 – The R-17 Elbrus tactical ballistic missile enters service in the Soviet Union. The subsequent series of Scud missiles eventually becomes a major proliferation concern.","verdict":"Compete: The R-17 \"Scud\" spread to dozens of countries and became the most widely fired ballistic missile, from the Iran–Iraq War to the Gulf War.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/R-17_Elbrus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1968094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_r_17_elbrus_1968094"},{"id":"w_nuclear_explosions_for_the_national_econ_757581","name":"Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet program investigating peaceful use of nuclear bombs. 1965 – January – The Soviet Union detonates Chagan as part of their Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy series to study the peaceful use of nuclear explosions.","verdict":"Compete: The Soviet Union's 124 peaceful nuclear explosions dug lakes, put out gas fires and stimulated oil wells, but the contamination ended the programme.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Explosions_for_the_National_Economy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q757581"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_explosions_for_the_national_econ_757581"},{"id":"w_docudrama_622370","name":"Docudrama","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Documentary genre that features dramatized re-enactments of actual events. 1965 – The television docudrama The War Game is filmed in the United Kingdom as an episode of The Wednesday Play anthology series providing a realistic depiction of a nuclear war.","verdict":"Compete: Docudramas such as The War Game (1965) restage real events with actors; they inform but can blur fact and dramatization.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Docudrama","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q622370"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_docudrama_622370"},{"id":"w_northeast_blackout_of_1965_1251686","name":"Northeast blackout of 1965","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Major power outage. 1965 – The Command Center for the Office of Emergency Planning mistakes the Northeast blackout for a nuclear attack.","verdict":"Drift: A cascading grid failure that blacked out 30 million people and drove reliability rules.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Northeast_blackout_of_1965","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1251686"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_northeast_blackout_of_1965_1251686"},{"id":"w_dongfeng_1024412","name":"Dongfeng","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Chinese intercontinental ballistic missile. 1966 - October 27 - China tests a nuclear-armed Dongfeng-2 missile, which launches from Shuangchengzi Space and Missile Center and strikes Lop Nur. It is the only time a country has tested an armed nuclear missile over populated areas.","verdict":"Compete: China's 1966 Dongfeng-2 test flew a live nuclear warhead over its own territory, a risky demonstration of missile capability.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dongfeng_(missile)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1024412"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_dongfeng_1024412"},{"id":"w_outer_space_treaty_256608","name":"Outer Space Treaty","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Treaty that forms the basis of international space law. 1967 – January – The Outer Space Treaty prohibits nuclear tests in space.","verdict":"Advance: Banned nuclear weapons in orbit and claims on celestial bodies; space as shared ground.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Outer_Space_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q256608"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_outer_space_treaty_256608"},{"id":"w_treaty_of_tlatelolco_1567567","name":"Treaty of Tlatelolco","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Treaty to prohibit and prevent the testing, use, production, storage or acquisition of any nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean. 1967 - February 27 – The Treaty of Tlatelolco is signed in Mexico City, creating a nuclear-weapon-free zone in Latin America.","verdict":"Advance: Made Latin America the first nuclear-weapon-free zone.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Treaty_of_Tlatelolco","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1567567"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_treaty_of_tlatelolco_1567567"},{"id":"w_redoutable_class_submarine_1363244","name":"Redoutable-class submarine","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"French 1960s ballistic missile submarine class. 1967 – March 29 – The French Navy launches the Redoutable -class submarine.","verdict":"Compete: Le Redoutable (1967) gave France its own sea-based deterrent, built entirely in France.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Redoutable-class_submarine_(1967)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1363244"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_redoutable_class_submarine_1363244"},{"id":"w_nuclear_power_in_egypt_7068069","name":"Nuclear power in Egypt","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear research sites and processing facilities of Egypt. 1967 – June 10 – Israel wins the Six-Day War, hindering the nuclear program in Egypt started by Gamal Abdel Nasser.","verdict":"Advance: Egypt's Inshas research reactor (1961) began a nuclear programme stalled by the 1967 war; the El Dabaa power plant, now under construction, revives it.","dependencies":[],"region":"africa","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7068069"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_nuclear_power_in_egypt_7068069"},{"id":"w_test_no_6_2329367","name":"Test No. 6","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Sixth Chinese nuclear test, 1967. 1967 – June 17 – China successfully tests a hydrogen bomb.","verdict":"Compete: China's first hydrogen bomb (June 1967) came only 32 months after its first fission test, the fastest such progression.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_639","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329367"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_test_no_6_2329367"},{"id":"w_b28_795277","name":"B28","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Aerial unguided bomb with a thermonuclear warhead.","verdict":"Compete: Thermonuclear bomb; the 1968 Thule accident.","dependencies":["h_bomb"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/B28_nuclear_bomb","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795277"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_b28_795277"},{"id":"w_treaty_on_the_non_proliferation_of_nucle_186444","name":"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"International treaty limiting the spread of nuclear weapons. 1968 – July – The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opens for signatures. This treaty is intended to limit the spread of nuclear weapons.","verdict":"Advance: Capped the spread of nuclear weapons while sharing peaceful nuclear tech.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186444"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_treaty_on_the_non_proliferation_of_nucle_186444"},{"id":"w_swedish_nuclear_weapons_program_1751132","name":"Swedish nuclear weapons program","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear research sites and processing facilities of Sweden. 1968 – With its ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Sweden formally ends the nuclear weapons program it has run since 1945.","verdict":"Compete: Sweden designed weapons but abandoned them and signed the 1968 NPT, choosing instead to be a non-proliferation advocate.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Swedish_nuclear_weapons_program","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1751132"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_swedish_nuclear_weapons_program_1751132"},{"id":"w_v_bomber_2047097","name":"V bomber","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Family of three types of British long-range strategic bomber aircraft powered by four jet engines, used by the Royal Air Force. 1969 – The United Kingdom transfers its strategic nuclear warheads to its Polaris submarines away from the aging V-bomber fleet.","verdict":"Compete: The Valiant, Victor and Vulcan carried Britain's independent deterrent until Polaris submarines took over in 1969.","dependencies":["jet"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/V_bomber","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2047097"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_v_bomber_2047097"},{"id":"w_madman_theory_493127","name":"Madman theory","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Feature of Richard Nixon's foreign policy.","verdict":"Compete: Nixon's feigned unpredictability as nuclear coercion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Madman_theory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q493127"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_madman_theory_493127"},{"id":"w_ugm_73_poseidon_1331175","name":"UGM-73 Poseidon","year":1971,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Two-stage solid-fuel nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile. 1971 – March 31 – The United States deploys the UGM-73 Poseidon submarine-launched ballistic missile on James Madison -class submarines.","verdict":"Compete: Poseidon (1971) carried up to 14 independently targeted warheads, multiplying the warheads available to US submarines.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/UGM-73_Poseidon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1331175"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_ugm_73_poseidon_1331175"},{"id":"w_pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_1992486","name":"Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Pakistani nuclear weapons program. 1972 – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto launched Pakistan's atomic program in response to the loss of the war by making Munir Ahmad Khan as the program head.","verdict":"Compete: Bhutto's 1972 programme, aided by A. Q. Khan's centrifuge theft, gave Pakistan its bomb in 1998, and the Khan network later spread designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1992486"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_1992486"},{"id":"w_anti_ballistic_missile_treaty_287422","name":"Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty","year":1972,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Arms control treaty between the US and the USSR. 1972 – March 26 – The SALT I Agreement is ratified between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.","verdict":"Advance: First major US–Soviet arms limitation; it restrained the arms race.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287422"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_anti_ballistic_missile_treaty_287422"},{"id":"w_peaceful_nuclear_explosion_4382347","name":"Peaceful nuclear explosion","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Nuclear explosion conducted for non-military purposes. 1974 – South Africa secretly decides to pursue a capability for nuclear bombs, ostensibly for peaceful nuclear explosions.","verdict":"Compete: Peaceful nuclear blasts were proposed for canals and gas stimulation, but India's 1974 \"peaceful\" test showed how easily they served weapons.","dependencies":["w_nuclear_explosion_2656967","w_nuclear_weapons_testing_210112"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_nuclear_explosion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4382347"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_peaceful_nuclear_explosion_4382347"},{"id":"w_nuclear_program_of_iran_329891","name":"Nuclear program of Iran","year":1974,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Nuclear research sites and processing facilities of Iran. 1974 – The Iranian nuclear program is commenced by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who founds the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran.","verdict":"Compete: Iran's Shah-era programme, revived after 1979, led to enrichment that the 2015 JCPOA briefly capped.","dependencies":[],"region":"persia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_program_of_Iran","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q329891"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_program_of_iran_329891"},{"id":"w_df_4_1024410","name":"DF-4","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Intercontinental ballistic missile. 1975 - China deploys its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Dong-Feng 4.","verdict":"Compete: China's DF-4 (1975) could reach Moscow and Guam, giving China a minimal deterrent against both superpowers.","dependencies":["w_dongfeng_1024412"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DF-4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1024410"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_df_4_1024410"},{"id":"w_neutron_bomb_719349","name":"Neutron bomb","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Low yield thermonuclear weapon. 1977 – Walter Pincus reports in The Washington Post that the United States is developing a neutron bomb, a warhead that causes relatively little blast damage but high casualties due to radiation, for deployment in Western Europe.","verdict":"Compete: The enhanced-radiation warhead, debated in 1977, killed with neutrons rather than blast; Carter shelved it amid European protests.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neutron_bomb","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q719349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_neutron_bomb_719349"},{"id":"w_boeing_e_3_sentry_261384","name":"Boeing E-3 Sentry","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Airborne early warning aircraft family. 1977 – March – The Boeing E-3 Sentry is introduced as NATO's primary AWACS aircraft.","verdict":"Compete: NATO's E-3 Sentry, introduced in 1977, sees aircraft 400 km away, and it remains the core of airborne early warning.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boeing_E-3_Sentry","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q261384"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_boeing_e_3_sentry_261384"},{"id":"w_air_sol_moyenne_port_e_181712","name":"Air-Sol Moyenne Portée","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"French air-launched medium-range nuclear missile. 1978 – France begins development of the Aérospatiale Air-Sol Moyenne Portée missile.","verdict":"Compete: France's air-launched nuclear standoff missile.","dependencies":["cruise_missile"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Air-sol_moyenne_port%C3%A9e","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181712"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_air_sol_moyenne_port_e_181712"},{"id":"w_seven_days_to_the_river_rhine_7457238","name":"Seven Days to the River Rhine","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1979 Soviet military simulation exercise. 1979 – The Warsaw Pact conducts its Seven Days to the River Rhine military simulation emulating a retaliatory nuclear strike against NATO.","verdict":"Compete: The Warsaw Pact's 1979 plan assumed a nuclear exchange followed by a drive to the Rhine within a week, an insight into Soviet doctrine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7457238"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_seven_days_to_the_river_rhine_7457238"},{"id":"w_ugm_96_trident_i_2044751","name":"UGM-96 Trident I","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Former American submarine-launched ballistic missile. 1979 – The United States begins to deploy Trident I C-4 missiles, its first SLBMs with intercontinental range, aboard its Ohio -class submarines.","verdict":"Compete: Trident I (1979) extended submarine missile range to about 7,400 km, letting US boats patrol safely farther from Soviet coasts.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/UGM-96_Trident_I","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2044751"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_ugm_96_trident_i_2044751"},{"id":"w_strategic_nuclear_weapon_1359863","name":"Strategic nuclear weapon","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Nuclear weapon designed to be used on targets as part of a strategic plan. 1979 – June 18 – General Secretary Brezhnev and President Carter sign the SALT II Agreement in Vienna agreeing to limit strategic nuclear weapons.","verdict":"Compete: Brezhnev and Carter signed SALT II in June 1979, capping strategic launchers; it was never ratified but largely observed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Strategic_nuclear_weapon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1359863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_strategic_nuclear_weapon_1359863"},{"id":"w_vela_284849","name":"Vela","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Group of satellites. 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst","verdict":"Advance: Vela nuclear-test satellites discovered gamma-ray bursts in 1967, among the most powerful explosions in the universe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vela_(satellite)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284849"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_vela_284849"},{"id":"w_nato_double_track_decision_1638236","name":"NATO Double-Track Decision","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Armament resolution by NATO. 1979 – December 12 – NATO makes its Double-Track Decision responding to the Soviet Union's increased deployment of RSD-10 Pioneer intermediate-range ballistic missiles and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers by deploying increased numbers of medium-r…","verdict":"Compete: NATO's 1979 dual track paired Pershing II deployment with arms talks, a combination that led to the 1987 INF Treaty eliminating a whole missile class.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NATO_Double-Track_Decision","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1638236"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_nato_double_track_decision_1638236"},{"id":"w_airstrike_2380335","name":"Airstrike","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Event in which aircraft are used to attack targets on land or at sea. 1981 – June 7 -The Israeli Air Force conducts an airstrike, Operation Opera, on Baathist Iraq's light-water nuclear reactor near Baghdad, hindering the country's uranium enrichment and nuclear weapons program.","verdict":"Compete: Air power used to strike targets; Israel's 1981 Osirak raid.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Airstrike","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2380335"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_airstrike_2380335"},{"id":"w_rockwell_b_1_lancer_218636","name":"Rockwell B-1 Lancer","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Strategic bomber aircraft family by Rockwell, later Boeing. 1981 – October – President Ronald Reagan announces an update of the U.S.","verdict":"Compete: The B-1 Lancer, revived by Reagan in 1981, flies low at supersonic speed and now serves as a conventional heavy bomber.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218636"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rockwell_b_1_lancer_218636"},{"id":"w_anti_war_movement_794691","name":"Anti-war movement","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Social movement opposed to a nation's status of armed conflict. 1982 – June 12 – The largest anti-war demonstration in history occurs against nuclear weapons in Central Park in New York City during a UN disarmament conference.","verdict":"Advance: Organized dissent against war; a check on state power.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anti-war_movement","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q794691"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_anti_war_movement_794691"},{"id":"w_agm_86_alcm_1360213","name":"AGM-86 ALCM","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1974 air-to-surface cruise missile family by Boeing. 1982 – The BDS AGM-86 ALCM air-launched cruise missile is introduced in the United States.","verdict":"Compete: Long-range air-launched cruise missile for nuclear deterrence.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AGM-86_ALCM","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1360213"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_agm_86_alcm_1360213"},{"id":"w_nuclear_winter_19921","name":"Nuclear winter","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hypothetical climatic effect of nuclear war. 1983 – The TTAPS study in Science first introduces the possibility of a nuclear winter, and a co-author Carl Sagan publishes an article on the subject in Parade magazine.","verdict":"Advance: The nuclear winter studies reinforced deterrence against using nuclear weapons.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_winter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19921"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nuclear_winter_19921"},{"id":"w_strategic_defense_initiative_211031","name":"Strategic Defense Initiative","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Defunct American missile defense system (1984-1993). 1983 – March 20 – President Reagan announces the Strategic Defense Initiative to defend against a Soviet nuclear attack.","verdict":"Compete: Reagan's 1983 SDI proposed space-based missile defence; it never deployed but funded sensors and lasers and shaped Soviet calculations.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Strategic_Defense_Initiative","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211031"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_strategic_defense_initiative_211031"},{"id":"w_oko_2017382","name":"Oko","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of Soviet and Russian early warning satellites. 1983 – September 26 – A false alarm occurs in the Soviet Union when the Oko early-warning system malfunctions and erroneously reports an incoming American missile strike.","verdict":"Advance: An Oko false alarm on 26 September 1983 was disregarded by Stanislav Petrov, who averted possible nuclear war.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oko","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2017382"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_oko_2017382"},{"id":"w_ryan_1634971","name":"RYAN","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1980s Soviet military intelligence program.","verdict":"Compete: The KGB's RYAN effort watched for a feared Western first strike and nearly turned NATO's Able Archer 1983 exercise into a crisis.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_RYAN","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1634971"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_ryan_1634971"},{"id":"w_television_film_506240","name":"Television film","year":1983,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Film format that is broadcast and distributed specifically for television networks.. 1983 – November 20 – The television film The Day After premieres on ABC, significantly changing attitudes on nuclear war.","verdict":"Advance: TV movies like The Day After (1983, about 100 million viewers) reached audiences on a scale cinema could not, and that broadcast shaped the nuclear debate.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Television_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506240"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_television_film_506240"},{"id":"w_new_zealand_s_nuclear_free_zone_4081089","name":"New Zealand's nuclear-free zone","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":2,"summary":"Legal prohibition on nuclear energy or weapons within New Zealand. 1986 – New Zealand announces a nuclear-free zone in its territorial waters, resulting in the unofficial cessation of the ANZUS Treaty.","verdict":"Compete: New Zealand's 1987 ban on nuclear-armed and nuclear-powered ships made the country a symbol of non-nuclear policy and cost it the ANZUS alliance with the US.","dependencies":[],"region":"oceania","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/New_Zealand_nuclear-free_zone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4081089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_new_zealand_s_nuclear_free_zone_4081089"},{"id":"w_nuclear_weapons_of_israel_65455964","name":"Nuclear weapons of Israel","year":1986,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Israel's control of nuclear weapons. 1986 – September – Mordechai Vanunu divulges secrets about the Israeli nuclear weapons program to The Sunday Times in London. Vanunu would be abducted by the Mossad in Rome and imprisoned.","verdict":"Compete: Mordechai Vanunu's 1986 revelations confirmed that Israel had built an arsenal at Dimona, which it holds under a policy of ambiguity.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_Israel","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65455964"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_weapons_of_israel_65455964"},{"id":"w_taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_712835","name":"Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"History of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons in Taiwan. 1987 – Chang Hsien-yi, a colonel of the Republic of China Army and the deputy director of the INER, defects to the United States and provides the CIA with classified documents revealing a secret nuclear weapons program in Taiwan.","verdict":"Compete: Taiwan's covert weapons programme was halted twice under US pressure, ending when Colonel Chang Hsien-yi defected in 1988, a case of non-proliferation by intelligence.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q712835"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_712835"},{"id":"w_intermediate_range_nuclear_forces_treaty_169401","name":"Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Arms control agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. 1987 – December 8- The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed by Gorbachev and Reagan at the Washington Summit, and is later ratified by both countries.","verdict":"Advance: The first treaty to eliminate a whole class of nuclear missiles.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_intermediate_range_nuclear_forces_treaty_169401"},{"id":"w_negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_south_a_3346991","name":"Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"CODESA. 1989 – South Africa opts to dismantle the six nuclear weapons it has secretly built amid the negotiations to end apartheid.","verdict":"Advance: A negotiated end to apartheid without civil war.","dependencies":[],"region":"africa","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3346991"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_south_a_3346991"},{"id":"w_start_i_931492","name":"START I","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1991 treaty between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the reduction of strategic offensive arms. 1991 – July 31 – The START I Treaty is ratified between the Soviet Union and the United States.","verdict":"Advance: Deep cuts to US and Soviet strategic arsenals.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/START_I","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q931492"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_start_i_931492"},{"id":"w_nuclear_briefcase_464814","name":"Nuclear briefcase","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Briefcase used to authorize the use of nuclear weapons. 1991 – December 25 – The Soviet Union, which possesses the largest nuclear arsenal in the world, collapses. Gorbachev hands over the nuclear briefcase, the Cheget, to the new Russian President Boris Yeltsin.","verdict":"Compete: The Cheget briefcase passed from Gorbachev to Yeltsin on 25 December 1991, keeping Soviet launch authority under one control.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_briefcase","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q464814"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nuclear_briefcase_464814"},{"id":"w_multiple_independently_targetable_reentr_521297","name":"Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Ballistic missile payload containing several warheads capable of independent targeting. 1993 – January 3 – The United States and Russia mutually agree to ban multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles through the START II Treaty.","verdict":"Compete: Multiple warheads on one missile (US Minuteman III, 1970) multiplied arsenals until START II tried to ban land-based MIRVs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q521297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_multiple_independently_targetable_reentr_521297"},{"id":"w_rt_2pm2_topol_m_477059","name":"RT-2PM2 Topol-M","year":1993,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Intercontinental ballistic missile. 1993 – Russia formulates a military doctrine de-emphasizing nuclear weapons except in the case of a large-scale global conflict, although President Yeltsin authorizes development of the RT-2PM2 Topol-M intercontinental ballistic missile…","verdict":"Compete: Topol-M (1997), Russia's first post-Soviet ICBM, is road-mobile and designed to evade missile defences.","dependencies":["icbm"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/RT-2PM2_Topol-M","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477059"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_rt_2pm2_topol_m_477059"},{"id":"w_vanguard_class_submarine_938245","name":"Vanguard-class submarine","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1993 class of British nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines. 1994 – The Vanguard -class submarines are introduced by the Royal Navy as an upgrade of the British strategic nuclear force, and carry American-built UGM-133 Trident II missiles.","verdict":"Compete: Britain's four Vanguard boats (1993) carry Trident II, keeping one submarine on patrol continuously since 1969.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vanguard-class_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q938245"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_vanguard_class_submarine_938245"},{"id":"w_nunn_lugar_cooperative_threat_reduction_647988","name":"Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"US post-Soviet counterproliferation program.","verdict":"Compete: Nunn–Lugar (1991) paid to dismantle more than 7,000 former Soviet warheads, securing loose nuclear material.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q647988"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_nunn_lugar_cooperative_threat_reduction_647988"},{"id":"w_comprehensive_nuclear_test_ban_treaty_521306","name":"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"International treaty to ban nuclear explosions. 1995 – The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty is ratified by 168 states. India, Pakistan, and North Korea have not signed the Treaty while China, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified it.","verdict":"Advance: A treaty banning nuclear test explosions; restraint backed by global seismic monitoring.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q521306"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_comprehensive_nuclear_test_ban_treaty_521306"},{"id":"w_black_brant_880128","name":"Black Brant","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Family of Canadian-designed sounding rockets.","verdict":"Advance: Canada's Black Brant sounding rockets (1959) have flown more than 800 science missions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Black_Brant_(rocket)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q880128"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_black_brant_880128"},{"id":"w_african_nuclear_weapon_free_zone_treaty_1468283","name":"African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"1996 international treaty. 1996 – April 11 – The Treaty of Pelindaba is ratified, creating a nuclear-weapon-free zone in Africa.","verdict":"Compete: A continent-wide nuclear-weapon-free zone; arms restraint by treaty.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Nuclear-Weapon-Free_Zone_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1468283"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_african_nuclear_weapon_free_zone_treaty_1468283"},{"id":"w_triomphant_class_submarine_1061181","name":"Triomphant-class submarine","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Submarine class. 1997 – March 21 – France launches the first of its Triomphant -class submarines.","verdict":"Compete: Le Triomphant (launched 1994, in service 1997) renewed France's sea-based deterrent with quieter submarines.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Triomphant-class_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1061181"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1994)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_triomphant_class_submarine_1061181"},{"id":"w_we_177_1144974","name":"WE.177","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Military designation of a former range of tactical and strategic nuclear bombs. 1998 – The United Kingdom decommissions the WE.177 bomb, the final warhead used by the Royal Air Force and the final tactical nuclear weapon used by Britain.","verdict":"Compete: The WE.177 freefall bomb, retired in 1998, was Britain's last air-delivered nuclear weapon, leaving Trident as its only deterrent.","dependencies":["w_strategic_nuclear_weapon_1359863"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/WE.177","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1144974"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_we_177_1144974"},{"id":"w_strategic_offensive_reductions_treaty_1889748","name":"Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"2002 nuclear disarmament treaty between the U.S. and Russia. 2002 – The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty is signed by U.S. president Bush and Russian president Vladimir Putin, and is ratified by the U.S. Senate and the Russian State Duma on June 1.","verdict":"Compete: The 2002 Moscow Treaty capped deployed strategic warheads at 1,700–2,200 each, extending post-Cold War cuts in nuclear arsenals.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1889748"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_strategic_offensive_reductions_treaty_1889748"},{"id":"w_united_nations_monitoring_verification_a_334413","name":"United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Organization established by the United Nations 1999-2007. 2002 – November 13 – UNMOVIC inspectors return to Iraq after the Iraq Resolution and UN Security Council Resolution 1441 to ensure that it has ended its CNBR weapons.","verdict":"Advance: UNMOVIC's 2002–03 inspections found no reconstituted Iraqi WMD, findings later borne out by the Iraq Survey Group.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/United_Nations_Monitoring,_Verification_and_Inspection_Commission","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334413"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1999)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_united_nations_monitoring_verification_a_334413"},{"id":"w_international_code_of_conduct_against_ba_1566329","name":"International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":2,"summary":"Also known as the \"Hague Code of Conduct\". 2002 – November 25 – The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation is ratified at The Hague, Netherlands, regulating proliferation of nuclear-capable ballistic missiles.","verdict":"Compete: The Hague Code of Conduct (2002) gathered more than 140 states into transparency on ballistic missile launches, a confidence-building measure with no enforcement.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Code_of_Conduct_against_Ballistic_Missile_Proliferation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1566329"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_international_code_of_conduct_against_ba_1566329"},{"id":"w_2003_invasion_of_iraq_107802","name":"2003 invasion of Iraq","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"2003 military invasion led by the United States. 2003 – March 20 – Although Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei claim there is no evidence that Iraqi CNBR weapons development has resumed, President Bush authorizes the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq.","verdict":"Compete: The US-led coalition toppled Saddam Hussein; a decisive conventional war followed by a long, costly insurgency, and the WMD rationale proved unfounded.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/2003_invasion_of_Iraq","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q107802"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_2003_invasion_of_iraq_107802"},{"id":"w_six_party_talks_495543","name":"Six-party talks","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Meetings on North Korea nuclear program. 2003 – North Korea announces that it has several nuclear explosives. The Six-Party Talks begin in Beijing.","verdict":"Compete: The 2003–09 six-party talks produced a 2005 denuclearization pledge from North Korea that collapsed when Pyongyang tested a bomb in 2006.","dependencies":[],"region":"korea","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Six-party_talks","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q495543"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_six_party_talks_495543"},{"id":"w_libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_15303616","name":"Libya and weapons of mass destruction","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"2003 – December – Libya announces the closure of its WMD programs, including an early attempt to develop an atomic bomb using designs from Abdul Qadeer Khan.","verdict":"Advance: Libya's voluntary nuclear disarmament; a nonproliferation win.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15303616"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction_15303616"},{"id":"w_fatwa_179274","name":"Fatwa","year":700,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Term for the legal opinion or learned interpretation that a qualified jurist or mufti can give on issues pertaining to the Islamic law. 2005 – August – In Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons.","verdict":"Advance: The fatwa, a qualified jurist's non-binding legal opinion dating from early Islam, gave Muslim communities a way to apply law to new questions, from coffee to organ transplants.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fatwa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179274"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_fatwa_179274"},{"id":"w_international_sanctions_against_iran_2038124","name":"International sanctions against Iran","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Economic, trade, scientific and military sanctions imposed on Iran by the international community. 2006 - April 11 - President Ahmedinejad announces that Iran has produced enriched uranium in defiance of the UN and the IAEA, leading to sanctions.","verdict":"Compete: Economic sanctions as a non-military lever over nuclear programs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/International_sanctions_against_Iran","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2038124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_international_sanctions_against_iran_2038124"},{"id":"w_jericho_874349","name":"Jericho","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Ballistic missile. 2008 – January – Israel is believed to have tested its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Jericho III.","verdict":"Compete: Israel's Jericho III, reportedly tested in 2008, is claimed to have intercontinental range.","dependencies":[],"region":"near_east","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jericho_(missile)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q874349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_jericho_874349"},{"id":"w_nato_missile_defence_system_3509305","name":"NATO missile defence system","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"2009 – November 12 – President Obama announces changes to the NATO missile defense system, including an increased reliance on the sea-based Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System and the AN/TPY-2 radar, and the RIM-161 Standard Missile…","verdict":"Compete: NATO's phased adaptive approach (2009) based Aegis interceptors in Europe against Iranian missiles, competing with offence at the intercept level.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/NATO_missile_defense_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3509305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_nato_missile_defence_system_3509305"},{"id":"w_new_start_2002064","name":"New START","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"2010 nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation. 2010 – April 8 – U.S. president Barack Obama and Russian President Dimitri Medvedev sign the New START Treaty reducing strategic warheads.","verdict":"Compete: New START (2010) capped each side at 1,550 deployed warheads with on-site inspections; Russia suspended participation in 2023.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/New_START","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2002064"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_new_start_2002064"},{"id":"w_international_waters_25855","name":"International waters","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Waters outside of national jurisdiction. 2012 – Russia announces that it will resume regular patrols with its SSBN fleet in international waters.","verdict":"Compete: Freedom of the seas: open ocean beyond national control, the legal basis of global shipping.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/International_waters","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25855"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_international_waters_25855"},{"id":"w_agni_v_1046130","name":"Agni-V","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Type of ICBM. 2012 – April 19 – India tests its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Agni-V.","verdict":"Compete: India's first ICBM; deterrence reaches intercontinental range.","dependencies":["icbm"],"region":"india","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agni-V","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1046130"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_agni_v_1046130"},{"id":"w_ballistic_missile_submarine_683570","name":"Ballistic missile submarine","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Submarine able to launch ballistic missiles. 2013 – The U.S. Department of Defense reports to Congress that the PLA Navy is developing a ballistic missile submarine force.","verdict":"Compete: The USS George Washington's 1960 Polaris patrols made ballistic missile submarines the survivable second-strike leg of deterrence.","dependencies":["nuclear_sub","w_solid_propellant_rocket_280602"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ballistic_missile_submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q683570","https://grokipedia.com/page/UGM-27_Polaris"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_ballistic_missile_submarine_683570"},{"id":"w_joint_comprehensive_plan_of_action_17001802","name":"Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"International agreement on the nuclear program of Iran. 2015 – Under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Iran agrees to limit its uranium-enrichment operations in exchange for submitting to IAEA inspections and reduced sanctions.","verdict":"Compete: A negotiated limit on Iran's nuclear program; contested and later abandoned by the US.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_nuclear_deal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17001802"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_joint_comprehensive_plan_of_action_17001802"},{"id":"w_poseidon_21467398","name":"Poseidon","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Type of nuclear-powered, nuclear-armed UUV. 2015 – Reports about Russia's Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System, a system of unmanned underwater vehicles capable of delivering a thermonuclear cobalt bomb, leak.","verdict":"Compete: Russia's Poseidon nuclear torpedo, revealed in 2015, is designed as a retaliatory weapon against coastal cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon_%28unmanned_underwater_vehicle%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21467398"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_poseidon_21467398"},{"id":"w_treaty_on_the_prohibition_of_nuclear_wea_28130514","name":"Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Legally binding international agreement to prohibit nuclear weapons. 2017 – July 7- The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, the first legally-binding international nuclear weapons ban, is ratified by 90 countries.","verdict":"Compete: The 2017 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons entered into force in 2021, but no nuclear-armed state has joined it, so its effect is mainly normative.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28130514"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_treaty_on_the_prohibition_of_nuclear_wea_28130514"},{"id":"w_united_states_withdrawal_from_iran_deal_52836581","name":"United States withdrawal from Iran Deal","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"2018 US withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal. 2018 – May 8 – President Trump announces the United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.","verdict":"Compete: The 2018 US exit from the JCPOA restored sanctions on Iran, after which Iran expanded enrichment past the deal's limits.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Iran_nuclear_deal","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52836581"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_united_states_withdrawal_from_iran_deal_52836581"},{"id":"w_euclid_s_theorem_1506253","name":"Euclid's theorem","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem that the number of prime numbers is infinite. 300 BCE — Euclid proves the number of prime numbers is infinite.","verdict":"Advance: Euclid's proof that the primes are infinite (c. 300 BCE) is a model of proof by contradiction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Euclid's_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1506253"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_euclid_s_theorem_1506253"},{"id":"w_thabit_number_965294","name":"Thabit number","year":895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Integer of the form 3 · 2ⁿ - 1 for non-negative n. 895 — Thabit ibn Qurra gives a theorem by which pairs of amicable numbers can be found, (i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other).","verdict":"Advance: Thabit ibn Qurra's 9th-century rule for amicable numbers was an advance in number theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thabit_number","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965294"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_thabit_number_965294"},{"id":"w_binomial_coefficient_209875","name":"Binomial coefficient","year":975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of positive integers that occur as coefficients in the binomial theorem. 975 — The earliest triangle of binomial coefficients (Pascal triangle) occur in the 10th century in commentaries on the Chandas Shastra.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Karaji and Halayudha (10th century) tabulated binomial coefficients.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Binomial_coefficient","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209875"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_binomial_coefficient_209875"},{"id":"w_lagrange_s_four_square_theorem_756946","name":"Lagrange's four-square theorem","year":1770,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. 1770 — Joseph Louis Lagrange proves the four-square theorem, that every positive integer is the sum of four squares of integers.","verdict":"Advance: Lagrange's 1770 proof that every positive integer is a sum of four squares settled a classic question.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lagrange's_four-square_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q756946"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_lagrange_s_four_square_theorem_756946"},{"id":"w_waring_s_problem_657903","name":"Waring's problem","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Problem in number theory. 1909 — David Hilbert proves Waring's problem.","verdict":"Advance: Hilbert's 1909 proof of Waring's problem showed every integer is a sum of a fixed number of k-th powers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Waring's_problem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q657903"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_waring_s_problem_657903"},{"id":"w_highly_composite_number_629958","name":"Highly composite number","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Positive integer with more divisors than any smaller positive integer has. 1910s — Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan develops over 3000 theorems, including properties of highly composite numbers, the partition function and its asymptotics, and mock theta functions.","verdict":"Advance: Ramanujan's 1915 study of highly composite numbers revealed deep structure in divisor counts.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Highly_composite_number","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629958"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_highly_composite_number_629958"},{"id":"w_vinogradov_s_theorem_1694565","name":"Vinogradov's theorem","year":1937,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem stating that a sufficiently large odd integer is the sum of three primes. 1937 — I. M. Vinogradov proves Vinogradov's theorem that every sufficiently large odd integer is the sum of three primes, a close approach to proving Goldbach's weak conjecture.","verdict":"Advance: I. M. Vinogradov's 1937 theorem showed large odd numbers are sums of three primes; Helfgott finished it in 2013.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinogradov%27s_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1694565"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vinogradov_s_theorem_1694565"},{"id":"w_chen_s_theorem_1317350","name":"Chen's theorem","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematics theorem in number theory, which was first stated and proved by Chen Jingrun. 1966 — Chen Jingrun proves Chen's theorem, a close approach to proving the Goldbach conjecture.","verdict":"Advance: Chen Jingrun's 1966 theorem that large even numbers are a prime plus a semiprime is the closest result to Goldbach.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chen's_theorem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_number_theory","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1317350"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chen_s_theorem_1317350"},{"id":"w_univac_1103_684957","name":"UNIVAC 1103","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Univac computer introduced in 1953. MIT 's Tape Director operating system made for UNIVAC 1103","verdict":"Advance: UNIVAC 1103 (1953) was the first commercial computer with interrupts.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_1103","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q684957"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_univac_1103_684957"},{"id":"w_multics_739186","name":"Multics","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Operating system. Multics (MIT, GE, Bell Labs for the GE-645 ) ( announced )","verdict":"Advance: Multics (1969) introduced hierarchical files and security rings, inspiring Unix.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q739186"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_multics_739186"},{"id":"w_cdc_6600_683851","name":"CDC 6600","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computer. SIPROS 66 (Simultaneous Processing Operating System)","verdict":"Advance: Seymour Cray's CDC 6600 (1964), the first supercomputer, was three times faster than its rivals.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/CDC_6600","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q683851"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_cdc_6600_683851"},{"id":"w_elbrus_1089223","name":"Elbrus","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Russian supercomputer. Эльбрус-1 ( Elbrus-1 ) – Soviet computer – created using high-level language uЭль-76 ( AL-76/ALGOL 68 )","verdict":"Advance: The Soviet Elbrus (1978) was a superscalar machine designed for high-level languages.","dependencies":["w_supercomputer_121117"],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Elbrus_(computer)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1089223"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_elbrus_1089223"},{"id":"w_intel_iapx_432_971102","name":"Intel iAPX 432","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Discontinued Intel microprocessor architecture. iMAX – OS for Intel's iAPX 432 capability machine","verdict":"Advance: Intel's iAPX 432 (1981) used object-oriented hardware but was too slow to succeed.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Intel_iAPX_432","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q971102"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_intel_iapx_432_971102"},{"id":"w_olivetti_m20_3881835","name":"Olivetti M20","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Personal computer. PCOS (Olivetti M20)","verdict":"Advance: Olivetti's M20 (1982) was an early Z8000-based personal computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivetti_M20","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3881835"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_olivetti_m20_3881835"},{"id":"w_trusted_computer_system_evaluation_crite_1191521","name":"Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria","year":1980,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"DoD standard for computer security. STOP – TCSEC A1-class, secure OS for SCOMP hardware","verdict":"Advance: The DoD's Orange Book (1983) defined trusted computer security levels.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Trusted_Computer_System_Evaluation_Criteria","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1191521"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_trusted_computer_system_evaluation_crite_1191521"},{"id":"w_graphics_environment_manager_849246","name":"Graphics Environment Manager","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Operating environment created by Digital Research, Inc.. Graphics Environment Manager","verdict":"Advance: Digital Research's GEM (1985) gave Atari ST and PCs a graphical desktop, though Apple's lawsuit hobbled it.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GEM_(desktop_environment)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849246"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_graphics_environment_manager_849246"},{"id":"w_amoeba_473800","name":"Amoeba","year":1981,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Distributed operation system for timesharing on a network, developed at the 'Vrije' University in Amsterdam. Amoeba – microkernel-based, POSIX-compliant, distributed OS","verdict":"Advance: Influential research distributed operating system.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amoeba_(operating_system)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q473800"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_amoeba_473800"},{"id":"w_aros_research_operating_system_296818","name":"AROS Research Operating System","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Operating system. AROS ( Boot for the first time in Stand Alone version )","verdict":"Advance: Open-source reimplementation of AmigaOS.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AROS_Research_Operating_System","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296818"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_aros_research_operating_system_296818"},{"id":"w_inferno_908615","name":"Inferno","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Distributed operating system based on ideas and technology from Plan 9. Inferno Second Edition ( Last distribution (Release 2.3, c. July 1999 ) from Lucent's Inferno Business Unit )","verdict":"Advance: Bell Labs' Inferno (1996) was a distributed operating system descended from Plan 9.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inferno_(operating_system)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q908615"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_inferno_908615"},{"id":"w_morphos_646795","name":"MorphOS","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Amiga-compatible computer operating system. Debian 2.2 MorphOS 0.1","verdict":"Advance: MorphOS (2000) kept the Amiga operating system alive on PowerPC hardware.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MorphOS","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q646795"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_morphos_646795"},{"id":"w_dragonfly_bsd_751067","name":"DragonFly BSD","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Operating system. DragonFly BSD 1.0","verdict":"Advance: Matthew Dillon's DragonFly BSD (2003) explored new approaches to multiprocessor kernels.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DragonFly_BSD","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_operating_systems","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751067"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_dragonfly_bsd_751067"},{"id":"w_supersaturation_334104","name":"Supersaturation","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"State of a solution that contains more solute than can be dissolved at equilibrium. 1896 - Charles Wilson discovers that energetic particles produce droplet tracks in supersaturated gases.","verdict":"Advance: Wilson's studies of supersaturated vapour (1895–96) on Ben Nevis led to the cloud chamber.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Supersaturation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334104"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_supersaturation_334104"},{"id":"w_townsend_discharge_1041881","name":"Townsend discharge","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Gas ionisation process where free electrons are accelerated by an electric field, collide with gas molecules, and consequently free additional electrons. 1897-1901 - Discovery of the Townsend discharge by John Sealy Townsend.","verdict":"Advance: John Townsend's 1897 avalanche ionization explains Geiger counters and gas-discharge lighting.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Townsend_discharge","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1041881"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_townsend_discharge_1041881"},{"id":"w_stencil_504073","name":"Stencil","year":1717,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Graphic design technique. c. 1717 – Johann Heinrich Schulze makes fleeting sun prints of words by using stencils, sunlight, and a bottled mixture of chalk and silver nitrate in nitric acid, simply as an interesting way to demonstrate that the substance inside t…","verdict":"Advance: Johann Schulze's 1717 sun-prints through stencils proved silver salts darken in light, the chemical seed of photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stencil","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504073"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_stencil_504073"},{"id":"w_negative_595597","name":"Negative","year":1816,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Photograph in which the tones or colors are reversed from their appearance in nature, usually on a transparent support of celluloid, acetate, or on paper, intended for the purpose of producing positive prints. 1816 – Nicéphore Niépce succeeds in making negative photographs of camera images on paper coated with silver chloride, but cannot adequately \"fix\" them to stop them from darkening all over when exposed to light for viewing.","verdict":"Advance: Talbot's paper negative let one exposure yield unlimited prints, the copyable photograph.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Negative_(photography)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q595597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_negative_595597"},{"id":"w_lithographic_limestone_6648021","name":"Lithographic limestone","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of limestone with hard fine grain. 1824 – Niépce makes the first durable, light-fast camera photograph, similar to his surviving 1826–1827 photograph on pewter but created on the surface of a lithographic stone. It is destroyed in the course of subsequent experiments.","verdict":"Advance: Fine-grained Solnhofen limestone made the printing stones of lithography (1796), cheap illustration and maps, and later yielded Archaeopteryx fossils.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lithographic_limestone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6648021"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_lithographic_limestone_6648021"},{"id":"w_photogram_841954","name":"Photogram","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Photographic image made without a camera by placing objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material. Sarah Anne Bright creates a series of photograms, six of which are known to still exist. These are the earliest surviving photographic images created by a woman.","verdict":"Advance: Contact-printing objects onto light-sensitive paper made camera-free photographs, used by Atkins for botany and by Man Ray for art.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photogram","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841954"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photogram_841954"},{"id":"w_sodium_thiosulfate_339866","name":"Sodium thiosulfate","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical compound. John Herschel introduces hyposulfite of soda (now known as sodium thiosulfate but still nicknamed \"hypo\") as a highly effective fixer for all silver-based processes. He also makes the first glass negative.","verdict":"Advance: Herschel's \"hypo\" fixed photographic images in 1839 by dissolving unexposed silver, essential to all chemical photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sodium_thiosulfate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339866"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_sodium_thiosulfate_339866"},{"id":"w_calotype_372431","name":"Calotype","year":1841,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"William Henry Fox Talbot's process to make negatives on paper. 1841 – Talbot introduces his patented calotype (or \"talbotype\") paper negative process, an improved version of his earlier process that greatly reduces the required exposure time.","verdict":"Advance: Talbot's 1841 calotype paper negatives made photography reproducible, unlike the one-off daguerreotype.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Calotype","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q372431"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_calotype_372431"},{"id":"w_photo_book_604219","name":"Photo-book","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Book in which photographs make a significant contribution to the overall content. 1843 – Anna Atkins publishes the first photo book, British Algae.","verdict":"Advance: Anna Atkins' 1843 cyanotype book of British algae was the first photographically illustrated book, merging science and photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_book","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q604219"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photo_book_604219"},{"id":"w_wet_collodion_process_904614","name":"Wet collodion process","year":1851,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Photographic process that uses a collodion binder which must be coated on the support, exposed, and developed before the collodion has become dry. 1851 – Introduction of the collodion process by Frederick Scott Archer, used for making glass negatives, ambrotypes and tintypes.","verdict":"Advance: Frederick Scott Archer's 1851 collodion glass negatives combined sharpness and short exposures, documenting the Crimean and American Civil Wars.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Collodion_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q904614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_wet_collodion_process_904614"},{"id":"w_carte_de_visite_1757923","name":"Carte de visite","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small-format photographs affixed to card stock, popular in the mid-19th century. André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri credited with introduction of the carte de visite (English: visiting card or calling card ) format for portraiture.","verdict":"Advance: Disdéri's 1854 multi-lens carte de visite made portraits cheap enough for ordinary people, creating the first photographic collectibles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carte_de_visite","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1757923"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_carte_de_visite_1757923"},{"id":"w_photographic_emulsion_355549","name":"Photographic emulsion","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Light-sensitive colloid. 1873 – Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovers dye sensitization, allowing the blue-sensitive but otherwise color-blind photographic emulsions then in use to be made sensitive to green, yellow and red light.","verdict":"Advance: Hermann Vogel's 1873 dye sensitization extended emulsions to green and later red light, making true colour photography possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photographic_emulsion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q355549"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photographic_emulsion_355549"},{"id":"w_zoetrope_218273","name":"Zoetrope","year":1834,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pre-cinema animation device. Eadweard Muybridge uses a row of cameras with trip-wires to make a high-speed photographic analysis of a galloping horse.","verdict":"Advance: William Horner's 1834 slotted drum animated drawings by persistence of vision, a direct ancestor of cinema.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zoetrope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218273"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_zoetrope_218273"},{"id":"w_folding_camera_313685","name":"Folding camera","year":1898,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of camera. 1898 – Kodak introduces the Folding Pocket Kodak.","verdict":"Advance: The 1898 Folding Pocket Kodak made portable roll-film photography practical.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Folding_camera","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q313685"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_folding_camera_313685"},{"id":"w_brownie_2729831","name":"Brownie","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of photo cameras. 1900 – Kodak introduces their first Brownie, a very inexpensive user-reloadable point-and-shoot box camera.","verdict":"Advance: Kodak's one-dollar Brownie of 1900 put a camera into ordinary hands, making snapshot photography a mass hobby.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kodak_Brownie","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2729831"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_brownie_2729831"},{"id":"w_120_film_3077349","name":"120 film","year":1901,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Medium format roll film. 1901 – Kodak introduces the 120 film format.","verdict":"Advance: Roll-film standard that put cameras in ordinary hands.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/120_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3077349"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_120_film_3077349"},{"id":"w_autochrome_lumi_re_355674","name":"Autochrome Lumière","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early color photography process. 1907 – The Autochrome plate is introduced. It becomes the first commercially successful color photography product.","verdict":"Advance: First commercial color photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q355674"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_autochrome_lumi_re_355674"},{"id":"w_kinemacolor_630548","name":"Kinemacolor","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Color motion picture process. 1908 – Kinemacolor, a two-color process known as the first commercial \"natural color\" system for movies, is introduced.","verdict":"Advance: George Albert Smith's 1908 Kinemacolor, the first commercial colour cinema, filmed the 1911 Delhi Durbar in two colours.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kinemacolor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q630548"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kinemacolor_630548"},{"id":"w_panchromatic_film_280995","name":"Panchromatic film","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Black-and-white photographic film sensitive to the whole visible light spectrum. 1913 – Kodak makes 35 mm panchromatic motion picture film available on a bulk special order basis.","verdict":"Advance: Kodak's 1913 panchromatic stock saw all visible colours, giving cinema natural skin tones and depth.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Panchromatic_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q280995"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_panchromatic_film_280995"},{"id":"w_16_mm_film_194383","name":"16 mm film","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Film gauge. The 16 mm amateur motion picture format is introduced by Kodak. Their Ciné-Kodak camera uses reversal film and all 16 mm is on an acetate (safety) base.","verdict":"Advance: Cheap motion pictures for schools, news and amateurs.","dependencies":["w_photographic_film_6293"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/16_mm_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194383"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_16_mm_film_194383"},{"id":"w_flashtube_13405580","name":"Flashtube","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Incoherent light source. Harold Edgerton invents the xenon flash lamp for strobe photography.","verdict":"Advance: Harold Edgerton's xenon flash froze bullets and drops in microseconds, now used in cameras and photocopiers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flashtube","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13405580"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_flashtube_13405580"},{"id":"w_flowers_and_trees_1458430","name":"Flowers and Trees","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1932 film by Burt Gillett. \" Flowers and Trees \", the first full-color cartoon, is made in Technicolor by Disney.","verdict":"Advance: Disney's 1932 short was the first commercial three-strip Technicolor film and won the first animated-short Oscar, starting colour film's mainstream run.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Flowers_and_Trees","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1458430"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_flowers_and_trees_1458430"},{"id":"w_kodachrome_1455620","name":"Kodachrome","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Brand name for a non-substantive, color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. In, the widely-used photographic film paper, Kodachrome was introduced. Kodak introduces the first 8 mm amateur motion picture film, cameras, and projectors.","verdict":"Advance: Kodachrome (1935) gave stable, vivid colour slides that archived the 20th century in colour.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodachrome","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1455620"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kodachrome_1455620"},{"id":"w_135_film_1051557","name":"135 film","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Photographic film format provided in a cartridge, also known as 35 mm film from the width of the film strip; most common analog (chemical) film used during the era of analog photography by both amateur und professional photographers. 1934 – The 135 film cartridge is introduced, making 35 mm easy to use for photography.","verdict":"Advance: The 35 mm cartridge became photography's universal format.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/135_film","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1051557"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_135_film_1051557"},{"id":"w_exakta_2537638","name":"Exakta","year":1933,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"German camera brand. Introduction by IHAGEE of the Ihagee Kine Exakta 1, the first 35 mm SLR ( Single Lens Reflex ) camera.","verdict":"Advance: IHAGEE's 1936 Kine Exakta was the first 35 mm SLR, framing through the lens and setting the professional camera template.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exakta","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2537638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_exakta_2537638"},{"id":"w_agfacolor_340207","name":"Agfacolor","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Trademark for a series of color film products by German company Agfa. Agfacolor Neu (English: New Agfacolor) color reversal film for home movies and slides.","verdict":"Advance: Agfa's color film, the first practical multilayer color negative.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agfacolor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q340207"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_agfacolor_340207"},{"id":"w_view_master_188057","name":"View-Master","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Trademark name of a line of special-format stereoscopes. The View-Master 3-D viewer and its \"reels\" of seven small stereoscopic image pairs on Kodachrome film are introduced.","verdict":"Advance: Seven-image stereo reels from 1939 put 3-D photography in children's hands and trained the eye for later VR headsets.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/View-Master","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_view_master_188057"},{"id":"w_rapatronic_camera_1548465","name":"Rapatronic camera","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Harold Edgerton develops the Rapatronic camera for the U.S. government.","verdict":"Advance: Edgerton's Rapatronic camera shot nuclear fireballs within microseconds using a magneto-optic shutter.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rapatronic_camera","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1548465"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rapatronic_camera_1548465"},{"id":"w_single_lens_reflex_camera_196353","name":"Single-lens reflex camera","year":1949,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system. 1949 – The Contax S camera is introduced, the first 35 mm SLR camera with a pentaprism eye-level viewfinder.","verdict":"Advance: The 1949 Contax S added a pentaprism for eye-level viewing, setting the template for professional cameras until digital.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Single-lens_reflex_camera","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q196353"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_single_lens_reflex_camera_196353"},{"id":"w_chemigram_1109474","name":"Chemigram","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of art made by painting with chemicals. 1956 - The Chemigram was defined by the belgian artist Pierre Cordier.","verdict":"Advance: Pierre Cordier's chemigram (1956) made images from photographic chemistry alone, without a camera, an artistic offshoot of the darkroom.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemigram","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1109474"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_chemigram_1109474"},{"id":"w_nikon_f_1931209","name":"Nikon F","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Camera model by Nikon. Nikon F introduced.","verdict":"Advance: The 1959 Nikon F system camera became the photojournalist's workhorse, covering Vietnam and Apollo.","dependencies":["w_single_lens_reflex_camera_196353"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nikon_F","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1931209"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nikon_f_1931209"},{"id":"w_kodak_instamatic_1558535","name":"Kodak Instamatic","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of 126 and 110 film camera models. 1963 – Kodak introduces the Instamatic.","verdict":"Advance: The 1963 Instamatic's drop-in cartridge made snapshot photography foolproof, selling 50 million cameras.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Instamatic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1558535"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kodak_instamatic_1558535"},{"id":"w_canon_fl_lens_mount_1389149","name":"Canon FL lens mount","year":1964,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lens mount. Canon introduces the Canon FL lens mount with the Canon FX","verdict":"Advance: Canon's FL bayonet mount (1964) brought automatic aperture to its SLRs, the lineage leading to EF.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Canon_FL_lens_mount","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1389149"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_canon_fl_lens_mount_1389149"},{"id":"w_bayer_filter_812133","name":"Bayer filter","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Color filter array for arranging RGB color filters on a square grid of photosensors. 1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors.","verdict":"Advance: Bryce Bayer's 1976 checkerboard filter lets one sensor capture colour and is used in almost every digital camera.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bayer_filter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q812133"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bayer_filter_812133"},{"id":"w_steadicam_744618","name":"Steadicam","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Motion picture camera stabilizer mounts. 1976 – Steadicam becomes available.","verdict":"Advance: Garrett Brown's 1976 Steadicam let operators walk with smooth shots, transforming film and sports coverage.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steadicam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744618"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_steadicam_744618"},{"id":"w_canon_ef_lens_mount_209633","name":"Canon EF lens mount","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Standard lens mount on the Canon EOS family. Canon releases the first camera for its fully electronic autofocus EF lens mount, the EOS 650","verdict":"Advance: Canon's 1987 all-electronic EF mount connected lens and body digitally and remains in use with its EOS cameras.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Canon_EF_lens_mount","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209633"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_canon_ef_lens_mount_209633"},{"id":"w_photo_cd_1413478","name":"Photo CD","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"System designed by Kodak for digitizing and saving photos in a CD. 1992 – Photo CD created by Kodak.","verdict":"Advance: Kodak's 1992 Photo CD digitized film rolls for computers, an early bridge from analogue to digital photography.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photo_CD","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1413478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_photo_cd_1413478"},{"id":"w_jet_propulsion_laboratory_189325","name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Research and development center and NASA field center in California, United States. 1993–95 – The Jet Propulsion Laboratory develops devices using CMOS or active pixel sensors.","verdict":"Advance: JPL, founded by Caltech's rocket group in 1936, built Explorer 1 and nearly every NASA planetary probe.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189325"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_jet_propulsion_laboratory_189325"},{"id":"w_image_stabilization_31009","name":"Image stabilization","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Techniques used to reduce blurring of images. 1994 – Nikon introduces the first optical-stabilized lens.","verdict":"Advance: Nikon's 1994 vibration-reduction lens countered hand shake optically, now standard in every phone camera.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Image_stabilization","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31009"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_image_stabilization_31009"},{"id":"w_j_sh04_6103778","name":"J-SH04","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mobile phone model. 2000 – J-SH04 introduced by J-Phone, the first commercially available mobile phone with a camera that can take and share still pictures.","verdict":"Advance: Sharp's J-SH04 (2000) was the first commercial camera phone, which put a camera in everyone's pocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/J-SH04","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6103778"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_j_sh04_6103778"},{"id":"w_light_field_camera_1974283","name":"Light-field camera","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device that captures information about the light field emanating from a scene (the intensity of light in a scene and also the direction that the light rays are traveling in space). 2011 – Lytro releases the first pocket-sized consumer light-field camera, capable of refocusing images after they are taken.","verdict":"Advance: Lytro's 2011 consumer light-field camera let users refocus after shooting, ideas now used in phone depth effects.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Light_field_camera","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_photography_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1974283"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_light_field_camera_1974283"},{"id":"w_polystyrene_146243","name":"Polystyrene","year":1839,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thermoplastic polymer of styrene. Eduard Simon, a German apothecary, discovers polystyrene.","verdict":"Advance: Eduard Simon's 1839 discovery of polystyrene led to the foams and cheap moulded goods of the 20th century, now a recycling challenge.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polystyrene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146243"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polystyrene_146243"},{"id":"w_galalith_899368","name":"Galalith","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Milk-based plastic. Galalith, a plastic derived from casein, is developed by Wilhelm Krische and Adolph Spitteler.","verdict":"Advance: Krische and Spitteler's milk-casein plastic made buttons and jewellery in the 1900s, an early bio-based plastic.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galalith","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899368"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_galalith_899368"},{"id":"w_formaldehyde_161210","name":"Formaldehyde","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Chemical compound. Auguste Trillat discovers the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.","verdict":"Advance: Formaldehyde became a key building block for resins like Bakelite, as well as a preservative and disinfectant.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Formaldehyde","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161210"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_formaldehyde_161210"},{"id":"w_shellac_429659","name":"Shellac","year":1894,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Spirit varnish produced from the resin secreted by lac insects on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. Shellac phonograph records are developed and soon become an industry standard.","verdict":"Advance: Indian shellac flakes, dissolved in alcohol, made gramophone records and fine furniture finishes before vinyl.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Shellac","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q429659"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_shellac_429659"},{"id":"w_neoprene_143937","name":"Neoprene","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Synthetic polymer resembling rubber, resistant to oil, heat, and weathering.. Neoprene is produced for the first time at DuPont.","verdict":"Advance: DuPont's 1931 neoprene was an oil-resistant synthetic rubber for gaskets, hoses and wetsuits.","dependencies":["w_synthetic_rubber_6714735"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neoprene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143937"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_neoprene_143937"},{"id":"w_polyethylene_terephthalate_145863","name":"Polyethylene terephthalate","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of polyester commonly used for bottles and clothing. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is discovered at the Calico Printers' Association in Britain. Expanded polystyrene is first produced.","verdict":"Advance: PET from the same chemistry makes strong, light drinks bottles that are now increasingly recycled.","dependencies":["w_polyester_188245"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polyethylene_terephthalate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q145863"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polyethylene_terephthalate_145863"},{"id":"w_polypropylene_146174","name":"Polypropylene","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polymer. J. Paul Hogan and Robert L. Banks from Phillips polymerize propylene for the first time to produce polypropylene.","verdict":"Advance: Hogan and Banks' 1951 polypropylene, with Natta's stereoregular form, became the second most common plastic, from car bumpers to medical syringes.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polypropylene","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146174"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polypropylene_146174"},{"id":"w_polycarbonate_62246","name":"Polycarbonate","year":1953,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Family of polymers. Polycarbonate is independently developed by Hermann Schnell at Bayer and Daniel Fox at General Electric.","verdict":"Advance: Hermann Schnell's 1953 polycarbonate is shatter-resistant and transparent, used for safety glasses, CDs and aircraft canopies.","dependencies":["w_polyester_188245"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polycarbonate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_plastic_development","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q62246"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_polycarbonate_62246"},{"id":"w_mathematics_in_medieval_islam_1267533","name":"Mathematics in medieval Islam","year":750,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The body of mathematics preserved and advanced under the Islamic civilization between circa 622 and 1600. 8th century – Al-Khalil, an Arab mathematician studying cryptology, wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages.","verdict":"Advance: Mathematicians in the medieval Islamic world, from al-Khwarizmi to Omar Khayyam, founded algebra and advanced trigonometry.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1267533"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mathematics_in_medieval_islam_1267533"},{"id":"w_frequency_analysis_565636","name":"Frequency analysis","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext. 9th century - Al-Kindi was the first to use frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages and developed the first code breaking algorithm.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Kindi's 9th-century frequency analysis broke substitution ciphers by letter statistics, founding cryptanalysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Frequency_analysis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q565636"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_frequency_analysis_565636"},{"id":"w_sample_size_determination_2564360","name":"Sample size determination","year":1250,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Act of choosing the number of observations to include in a statistical sample. 13th century – An important contribution of Ibn Adlan was on sample size for use of frequency analysis.","verdict":"Advance: Medieval mints tested samples of coins (the Trial of the Pyx), an early instance of sampling.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sample_size_determination","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2564360"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_sample_size_determination_2564360"},{"id":"w_odds_515895","name":"Odds","year":1560,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ratio of the probability that an event will happen to the probability that it will not happen. 1560s (published 1663) – Cardano 's Liber de ludo aleae attempts to calculate probabilities of dice throws.","verdict":"Advance: Gerolamo Cardano's study of gambling odds (written 1560s) began probability theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Odds","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q515895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_odds_515895"},{"id":"w_catholic_probabilism_16591370","name":"Catholic probabilism","year":1577,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Christian theological doctrine that one can follow an authoritative opinion regarding the morality of an act, even if other opinions are more probable. 1577 – Bartolomé de Medina defends probabilism, the view that in ethics one may follow a probable opinion even if the opposite is more probable","verdict":"Advance: Bartolomé de Medina's 1577 probabilism let consciences follow any solidly probable opinion; it was an early formal treatment of reasoning under uncertainty, later attacked by Pascal.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catholic_probabilism","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16591370"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_catholic_probabilism_16591370"},{"id":"w_human_sex_ratio_10861780","name":"Human sex ratio","year":1710,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ratio of males to females in a population. 1710 – John Arbuthnot argues that the constancy of the ratio of male to female births is a sign of divine providence,","verdict":"Advance: John Arbuthnot's 1710 birth-record analysis was the first statistical significance test.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_sex_ratio","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10861780"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_human_sex_ratio_10861780"},{"id":"w_annuity_215579","name":"Annuity","year":1724,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Series of payments made at equal intervals. 1724 – Abraham de Moivre studies mortality statistics and the foundation of the theory of annuities in Annuities upon Lives,","verdict":"Advance: De Moivre's annuity math put life insurance on a sound footing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Annuity","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215579"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_annuity_215579"},{"id":"w_line_chart_776115","name":"Line chart","year":1786,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chart type. 1786 – William Playfair 's Commercial and Political Atlas introduces graphs and bar charts of data,","verdict":"Advance: William Playfair's 1786 line and bar charts invented statistical graphics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Line_chart","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q776115"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_line_chart_776115"},{"id":"w_generating_function_860609","name":"Generating function","year":1814,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Formal power series with coefficients that encode information about a sequence.","verdict":"Advance: Laplace's generating functions (1812) encode sequences as power series, used in combinatorics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generating_function","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860609"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_generating_function_860609"},{"id":"w_frequentist_inference_2158281","name":"Frequentist inference","year":1866,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Statistical inference based on frequency and proportion in sample data. 1866 – John Venn 's Logic of Chance defends the frequency interpretation of probability.","verdict":"Advance: John Venn's 1866 frequency theory of probability laid the groundwork for frequentist statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Frequentist_inference","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2158281"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_frequentist_inference_2158281"},{"id":"w_correlation_186290","name":"Correlation","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any statistical relationship, whether causal or not, between two random variables or bivariate data. 1888 – Francis Galton introduces the concept of correlation,","verdict":"Advance: Francis Galton's 1888 correlation coefficient founded the measurement of statistical association.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Correlation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186290"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_correlation_186290"},{"id":"w_student_s_t_distribution_576072","name":"Student's t-distribution","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Probability distribution. 1908 – Student's t-distribution for the mean of small samples published in English (following earlier derivations in German).","verdict":"Advance: William Gosset's 1908 t-distribution, published as \"Student\" from Guinness, enabled small-sample statistics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Student's_t-distribution","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576072"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_student_s_t_distribution_576072"},{"id":"w_central_limit_theorem_190391","name":"Central limit theorem","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Key theorem in probability theory. 1920 – The central limit theorem in its modern form was formally stated.","verdict":"Advance: Lyapunov and Lindeberg's central limit theorem explains why averages are normally 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KornShell ( ksh ) David Korn sh","verdict":"Advance: David Korn's KornShell (1983) combined Bourne and C shell features for Unix scripting.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/KornShell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204222"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kornshell_204222"},{"id":"w_rocq_prover_1131652","name":"Rocq prover","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Proof assistant. 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Game Maker Language (GML) Mark Overmars Game Maker","verdict":"Advance: Mark Overmars's GameMaker (1999) let novices create games, launching indie hits like Undertale.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GameMaker","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q243720"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_gamemaker_243720"},{"id":"w_shakespeare_1140574","name":"Shakespeare","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Esoteric programming language designed by Jon Åslund and Karl Hasselström. 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Nix Eelco Dolstra Miranda/SASL, Haskell","verdict":"Advance: Eelco Dolstra's Nix (2003) makes builds reproducible through purely functional package management.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nix_(package_manager)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7041957"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_nix_7041957"},{"id":"w_squirrel_1200182","name":"Squirrel","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Programming language. 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Groovy James Strachan Java","verdict":"Advance: A dynamic language for the Java platform.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apache_Groovy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_programming_languages","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504453"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_apache_groovy_504453"},{"id":"w_dart_406009","name":"Dart","year":2011,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Programming language. 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Yoshihisa Yamamoto and K. Igeta propose the first physical realization of a quantum computer, including Feynman's CNOT gate.","verdict":"Advance: The controlled-NOT gate, with single-qubit gates, makes a universal set for quantum computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Controlled_NOT_gate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q917713"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_controlled_not_gate_917713"},{"id":"w_fredkin_gate_338556","name":"Fredkin gate","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Universal reversible logic gate, applied in quantum computing. Gerard J. Milburn proposes a quantum-optical realization of a Fredkin gate.","verdict":"Advance: Fredkin and Toffoli's 1982 controlled-swap gate is reversible and universal for computing.","dependencies":["w_logic_gate_170451"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fredkin_gate","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q338556"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_fredkin_gate_338556"},{"id":"w_bernstein_vazirani_algorithm_65053013","name":"Bernstein-Vazirani algorithm","year":1992,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum algorithm. Ethan Bernstein and Umesh Vazirani propose the Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm.","verdict":"Advance: Bernstein and Vazirani's 1993 algorithm demonstrated quantum speedup in complexity theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bernstein%E2%80%93Vazirani_algorithm","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65053013"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_bernstein_vazirani_algorithm_65053013"},{"id":"w_quantum_neural_network_1981341","name":"Quantum neural network","year":1995,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computational neural network model based on the principles of quantum mechanics. Independently, Subhash Kak and Ronald Chrisley propose the first quantum neural network.","verdict":"Advance: Subhash Kak's 1995 quantum neural networks combined quantum computing and neural models (claimed).","dependencies":["w_artificial_neural_network_192776"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_neural_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1981341"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quantum_neural_network_1981341"},{"id":"w_divincenzo_s_criteria_25305215","name":"DiVincenzo's criteria","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Criteria for a usable quantum computer. David DiVincenzo, of IBM, proposes a list of minimal requirements for creating a quantum computer, now called DiVincenzo's criteria.","verdict":"Advance: David DiVincenzo's 2000 criteria list requirements for a working quantum computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DiVincenzo's_criteria","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25305215"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_divincenzo_s_criteria_25305215"},{"id":"w_topological_quantum_computer_7825042","name":"Topological quantum computer","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hypothetical fault-tolerant quantum computer based on topological condensed matter. Alexei Kitaev describes the principles of topological quantum computation as a method for dealing with the problem of decoherence.","verdict":"Advance: Alexei Kitaev's 1997 topological qubits promise fault-tolerant quantum computing via anyons.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Topological_quantum_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7825042"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_topological_quantum_computer_7825042"},{"id":"w_quantum_no_deleting_theorem_7269076","name":"Quantum no-deleting theorem","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"In quantum information theory, the no-go theorem that, given two copies of a quantum state, one cannot delete only one of the copies. Arun K. Pati and Samuel L. Braunstein prove the quantum no-deleting theorem. This is dual to the no-cloning theorem which shows that one cannot delete a copy of an unknown qubit.","verdict":"Advance: Pati and Braunstein's 2000 no-deleting theorem complements no-cloning, constraining quantum information.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/No-deleting_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7269076"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quantum_no_deleting_theorem_7269076"},{"id":"w_one_way_quantum_computer_7092353","name":"One-way quantum computer","year":2001,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Quantum computer that first prepares an entangled resource state and then performs single qubit measurements on it. Robert Raussendorf and Hans Jürgen Briegel propose measurement-based quantum computation.","verdict":"Advance: Raussendorf and Briegel's 2001 measurement-based model computes by measuring an entangled cluster state.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/One-way_quantum_computer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7092353"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_one_way_quantum_computer_7092353"},{"id":"w_quantum_network_836478","name":"Quantum network","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Networks for interconnecting quantum processors. The United States government DARPA Quantum Network becomes fully operational on October 23, 2003.","verdict":"Advance: DARPA's 2003 quantum network, in Boston, was the first to distribute quantum keys between nodes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_network","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quantum_network_836478"},{"id":"w_w_state_7958522","name":"W state","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Entangled 3-qubit quantum state. In December, W states of quantum registers with up to 8 qubits implemented using trapped ions are demonstrated at the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information and the University of Innsbruck in Austria.","verdict":"Advance: Dür, Vidal and Cirac's 2000 W state is a robust form of three-qubit entanglement.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/W_state","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7958522"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_w_state_7958522"},{"id":"w_quantum_zeno_effect_1897309","name":"Quantum Zeno effect","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Effect in quantum mechanics which disallows certain conditions in the decaying of a quantum state.","verdict":"Advance: Misra and Sudarshan's 1977 quantum Zeno effect showed frequent observation can freeze decay.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_Zeno_effect","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1897309"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quantum_zeno_effect_1897309"},{"id":"w_spin_quantum_number_3879445","name":"Spin quantum number","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum number parameterizing spin and angular momentum. Cristophe Boehme, University of Utah, demonstrates the feasibility of reading data using the nuclear spin on a silicon-phosphorus Kane quantum computer.","verdict":"Advance: Christoph Boehme's 2006 electrical readout of spin states advanced spin-based quantum devices.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spin_quantum_number","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3879445"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spin_quantum_number_3879445"},{"id":"w_quantum_register_7269090","name":"Quantum register","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Quantum mechanical analogue. A diamond quantum register is developed.","verdict":"Advance: Diamond quantum registers (2007) used nitrogen-vacancy centres for room-temperature qubits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_register","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7269090"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quantum_register_7269090"},{"id":"w_spin_orbit_interaction_1570979","name":"Spin–orbit interaction","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Relativistic interaction of a particle's spin with its motion inside a potential. Spin–orbit interaction of electrons are measured.","verdict":"Advance: Spin–orbit interaction, from Thomas (1926), enables spintronics and topological insulators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1570979"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spin_orbit_interaction_1570979"},{"id":"w_qutrit_2300171","name":"Qutrit","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Unit of quantum information that exists as a superposition of three orthogonal quantum states; analogous to the classical trit, just as the qubit, a quantum particle of two possible states, is analogous to the classical bit. Qutrits are developed.","verdict":"Advance: Qutrits use three levels, which can simplify quantum gates and error correction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Qutrit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2300171"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_qutrit_2300171"},{"id":"w_quantum_darwinism_904190","name":"Quantum Darwinism","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theory of the emergence of classicality by environment-induced selection of quantum states. The concept of Quantum Darwinism is supported.","verdict":"Advance: Wojciech Zurek's quantum Darwinism (2003) explains classical reality through redundant environmental records.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_Darwinism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q904190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_quantum_darwinism_904190"},{"id":"w_anyon_5528","name":"Anyon","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of particle that occurs only in two-dimensional systems. Six-photon graph state entanglement is used to simulate the fractional statistics of anyons living in artificial spin-lattice models.","verdict":"Advance: Exotic 2D quasiparticles; a route to error-resistant quantum computers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anyon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5528"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_anyon_5528"},{"id":"w_quantum_dot_1133068","name":"Quantum dot","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Nano-scale semiconductor particle subject to quantum effects. Quantum dot qubits are manipulated electrically, not magnetically.","verdict":"Advance: Quantum-dot qubits (2010) are controlled electrically and could leverage chip manufacturing.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_dot","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133068"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_quantum_dot_1133068"},{"id":"w_von_neumann_architecture_189088","name":"Von Neumann architecture","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Computer architecture using a common memory bus and address space for instructions and data. A quantum computer employing Von Neumann architecture is described.","verdict":"Advance: Von Neumann's 1945 EDVAC report described stored programs, the architecture of nearly every computer since.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Von_Neumann_architecture","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189088"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_von_neumann_architecture_189088"},{"id":"w_noisy_intermediate_scale_quantum_era_97323823","name":"Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Era of technology characterized by quantum processors with <1000 qubits sensitive to noise, prone to quantum decoherence, and incapable of continuous quantum error correction. John Preskill introduces the concept of noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era.","verdict":"Advance: John Preskill's 2018 NISQ term framed today's noisy quantum processors and their limitations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_computing","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q97323823"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_noisy_intermediate_scale_quantum_era_97323823"},{"id":"w_induction_coil_1417360","name":"Induction coil","year":1871,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electrical transformer used to produce high-voltage pulses from a low-voltage direct current (DC) supply. 1871: Edwin Houston, while setting up a large sparking Ruhmkorff coil to be used in a demonstration, notices he can draw sparks from metal objects throughout the room. He attributes this to induction.","verdict":"Advance: Ruhmkorff's induction coil stepped up voltage to make sparks for X-ray tubes, early radio and car ignition.","dependencies":["w_transformer_11658"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Induction_coil","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1417360"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_induction_coil_1417360"},{"id":"w_electroscope_130962","name":"Electroscope","year":1875,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on a body. 1875: While experimenting with an acoustic telegraph, Thomas Edison notices an electromagnet producing unusual sparks.","verdict":"Advance: Gold-leaf electroscopes measured charge and, in 1912, revealed cosmic rays during Hess's balloon flights.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electroscope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_electroscope_130962"},{"id":"w_loop_antenna_381015","name":"Loop antenna","year":1883,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of radio antenna. 1883: Irish physicist George Francis FitzGerald publishes a formula for the power radiated by a small loop antenna, showing it as proportional to the fourth power of the frequency.","verdict":"Advance: Loop antennas, analysed by FitzGerald in 1883, gave direction finding for ships and aircraft and still power RFID tags.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Loop_antenna","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q381015"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_loop_antenna_381015"},{"id":"w_transverse_wave_691978","name":"Transverse wave","year":1886,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular (right angled) to the direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of the wave). 1886 to 1888: After noticing how discharging an electric current into a coil produced a spark in a second nearby coil, Heinrich Hertz sees a way to build a test apparatus to solve von Helmholtz \"Berlin Prize\" problem.","verdict":"Advance: Hertz's 1886–88 experiments showed electromagnetic waves are transverse, confirming Maxwell.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Transverse_wave","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q691978"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_transverse_wave_691978"},{"id":"w_coherer_944090","name":"Coherer","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early radio wave detector. 1890: French physicist and inventor Edouard Branly does a thorough investigation of metal filings in an evacuated tube and how they are sensitive to electric sparks at a distance, an effect later to be called the coherer by Lodge.","verdict":"Advance: Édouard Branly's 1890 coherer detected radio waves, the sensor that made Marconi's and Popov's first radios work.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Coherer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944090"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_coherer_944090"},{"id":"w_phased_array_727898","name":"Phased array","year":1905,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Array of antennas creating a steerable beam. 1905: Karl Ferdinand Braun invents the phased array antenna, which leads to the development of radar, smart antennas and MIMO.","verdict":"Advance: Ferdinand Braun's 1905 phased antennas steered a beam electronically, the principle of modern radar and 5G arrays.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Phased_array","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727898"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_phased_array_727898"},{"id":"w_telharmonium_133506","name":"Telharmonium","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Electromechanical Instrument. February 1907: de Forest transmits electronic telharmonium music from his laboratory station in New York City.","verdict":"Advance: Thaddeus Cahill's 200-ton telharmonium streamed music over telephone lines in 1906, the first electronic instrument and the forerunner of streaming.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Telharmonium","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133506"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_telharmonium_133506"},{"id":"w_arc_converter_582060","name":"Arc converter","year":1902,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Variety of spark transmitter. July 1912: Charles David Herrold, using a Poulsen arc transmitter, makes intermittent weekly radio broadcasts of phonograph records to the San Jose area.","verdict":"Advance: Poulsen arc transmitters produced continuous waves for radio.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arc_converter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q582060"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_arc_converter_582060"},{"id":"w_international_convention_for_the_safety__523582","name":"International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea","year":1914,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1974 international treaty for maritime safety. 1913: The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea was convened and produced a treaty requiring shipboard radio stations to be staffed 24 hours a day.","verdict":"Advance: After Titanic, a global maritime safety treaty that still governs shipping.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SOLAS_Convention","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q523582"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#w_international_convention_for_the_safety__523582"},{"id":"w_spark_gap_transmitter_1776868","name":"Spark-gap transmitter","year":1920,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device. 1920: Spark-gap telegraphy stopped.","verdict":"Advance: Spark transmitters sent Morse in noisy bursts, and continuous-wave valves displaced them after 1920, freeing spectrum.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spark-gap_transmitter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1776868"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_spark_gap_transmitter_1776868"},{"id":"w_single_sideband_modulation_560348","name":"Single-sideband modulation","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Refinement of amplitude modulation. Early 1930s: Single sideband (SSB) and frequency modulation (FM) were invented by amateur radio operators. By 1940, they were established commercial modes.","verdict":"Advance: John Carson's single-sideband modulation halved bandwidth and power, enabling transoceanic radiotelephone and ham radio.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Single-sideband_modulation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q560348"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_single_sideband_modulation_560348"},{"id":"w_vhf_omnidirectional_range_820036","name":"VHF omnidirectional range","year":1960,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Aviation navigation system. Early 1960s: VOR systems finally became widespread; before that, aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. (AM stations are still marked on U.S. aviation charts).","verdict":"Advance: VOR beacons standardized air navigation from the 1950s, creating today's airway network.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/VHF_omnidirectional_range","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q820036"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_vhf_omnidirectional_range_820036"},{"id":"w_loran_596529","name":"LORAN","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Long range navigation system. 1970s: LORAN became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the U.S. Navy experimented with satellite navigation.","verdict":"Advance: LORAN's radio-pulse timing (1943) fixed ship and aircraft positions over oceans, the predecessor of GPS.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/LORAN","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q596529"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_loran_596529"},{"id":"w_software_defined_radio_1331892","name":"Software-defined radio","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Radio communication system implemented by means of software. 1994: The U.S. Army and DARPA launched an aggressive successful project to construct a software radio that could become a different radio on the fly by changing software.","verdict":"Advance: Software-defined radios (1990s) replace hardware with code, enabling flexible 4G and 5G base stations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Software-defined_radio","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1331892"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_software_defined_radio_1331892"},{"id":"w_digital_data_173285","name":"Digital data","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Discrete, discontinuous representations of information or works, as contrasted with continuous, or analog signals which behave in a continuous manner, or represent information using a continuous function. Late 1990s: The digital transmissions began to be applied to broadcasting.","verdict":"Advance: Digitized data enabled perfect copies and global transmission, changing media and science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Digital_data","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_radio","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173285"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_digital_data_173285"},{"id":"w_congreve_rocket_1344031","name":"Congreve rocket","year":1801,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Type of artillery missile. 1801 - The British Army develops the Congreve rocket based on weapons used against them by Tipu Sultan.","verdict":"Compete: William Congreve adapted Mysorean iron rockets into British artillery, which bombarded Copenhagen in 1807 and inspired \"the rockets' red glare\".","dependencies":["rocket_cn"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Congreve_rocket","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1344031"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_congreve_rocket_1344031"},{"id":"w_tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation_834199","name":"Tsiolkovsky rocket equation","year":1903,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mathematical equation describing the motion of a rocket. 1813 - \"A Treatise on the Motion of Rockets\" by William Moore – first appearance of the rocket equation","verdict":"Advance: Tsiolkovsky's 1903 equation relating velocity change to exhaust speed and mass ratio sets the physics of every launch.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q834199"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation_834199"},{"id":"w_a_trip_to_the_moon_244971","name":"A Trip to the Moon","year":1902,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1902 French black-and-white silent science fiction film directed by Georges Méliès. 1902 - French cinema pioneer Georges Méliès directs A Trip to the Moon, the first film about space travel.","verdict":"Advance: Méliès's Moon voyage: early science fiction that inspired generations.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/A_Trip_to_the_Moon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q244971"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_a_trip_to_the_moon_244971"},{"id":"w_le_prieur_rocket_1751629","name":"Le Prieur rocket","year":1916,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"French WWI air-to-air rocket. 1916 - first use of rockets (with the solid fuel Le Prieur rocket ) for both air-to-air attacks, and air-to-ground.","verdict":"Compete: Yves Le Prieur's wing-mounted rockets downed observation balloons at Verdun in 1916, the first air-to-air rocket attacks.","dependencies":["airplane"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Le_Prieur_rocket","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1751629"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_le_prieur_rocket_1751629"},{"id":"w_rocket_mail_1413546","name":"Rocket mail","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Mail delivery by rockets or missiles. 1931 - Friedrich Schmiedl attempts the first rocket mail service in Austria","verdict":"Compete: Friedrich Schmiedl's 1931 Austrian rockets carried mail between villages, a stunt that foreshadowed rocket delivery but never paid.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rocket_mail","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1413546"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_rocket_mail_1413546"},{"id":"w_jato_1676551","name":"JATO","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of aircraft assisted take-off. 1941 - Jet Assisted Take Off JATO installed on US Army Air Corp Ercoupe aircraft occurred on 12 August in March Field, California.","verdict":"Advance: JATO rockets (1941) shortened take-offs for heavy aircraft, used on Hercules transports and seaplanes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/JATO","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1676551"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_jato_1676551"},{"id":"w_mw_18014_21187528","name":"MW 18014","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"German V-2 rocket test launch. 1944 - The V-2 rocket MW 18014 reaches an altitude of 176 km, becoming the first human-made object to reach space.","verdict":"Compete: V-2 test MW 18014 reached 176 km on 20 June 1944, the first human-made object to cross into space; its successors served both missiles and spaceflight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MW_18014","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21187528"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_mw_18014_21187528"},{"id":"w_operation_osoaviakhim_422427","name":"Operation Osoaviakhim","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet secret operation. 1945 - Operation Osoaviakhim takes 2,000 German rocket scientists and technicians to the Soviet Union","verdict":"Compete: On 22 October 1946, Soviet forces relocated more than 2,000 German specialists to the USSR overnight to boost Soviet rocketry and nuclear work.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Operation_Osoaviakhim","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422427"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_operation_osoaviakhim_422427"},{"id":"w_project_nike_1417957","name":"Project Nike","year":1946,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Missile program of the United States Army. 1946 - First flight of the Nike missile, later the first operational surface-to-air guided missile","verdict":"Compete: Nike Ajax (1953) was the first operational guided surface-to-air missile system, ringing US cities against bombers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Project_Nike","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1417957"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_project_nike_1417957"},{"id":"w_v_ronique_1601058","name":"Véronique","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"French sounding rocket. 1952 - 22 May, French Véronique 1 rocket is launched from the Algerian desert.","verdict":"Advance: France's Véronique sounding rocket (1952) began the French program that led to Diamant and Ariane.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/V%C3%A9ronique_(rocket)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1601058"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_v_ronique_1601058"},{"id":"w_mercury_redstone_2_1921530","name":"Mercury-Redstone 2","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Test flight of the Redstone rocket and Mercury spacecraft. 1961 - US launched the Mercury-Redstone 2 mission, which made the chimpanzee Ham to become the first Hominidae in space.","verdict":"Advance: Mercury-Redstone 2 (January 1961) carried the chimp Ham on a suborbital flight, clearing the way for Shepard.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mercury-Redstone_2","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1921530"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mercury_redstone_2_1921530"},{"id":"w_project_mercury_52162","name":"Project Mercury","year":1961,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First human spaceflight program of the United States. 1961 - US, a Mercury capsule named Freedom 7 with Alan B. Shepard, spacecraft was launched by a Redstone rocket on a ballistic trajectory suborbital flight.","verdict":"Advance: Project Mercury put Alan Shepard (May 1961) and John Glenn (1962) into space, establishing American human spaceflight.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Project_Mercury","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52162"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_project_mercury_52162"},{"id":"w_mercury_atlas_6_498533","name":"Mercury-Atlas 6","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First American orbital spaceflight. 1962 - The US launches Mercury MA-6 ( Friendship 7 ) on an Atlas D booster, John Glenn puts America in orbit.","verdict":"Advance: John Glenn's Friendship 7 (February 1962) made three orbits, the first US orbital flight.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mercury-Atlas_6","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q498533"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mercury_atlas_6_498533"},{"id":"w_zond_5_372945","name":"Zond 5","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet spacecraft. 1968 - USSR Zond 5, two tortoises and smaller biological Earthlings circle the Moon and return safely to Earth.","verdict":"Advance: Zond 5 (September 1968) flew tortoises around the Moon and returned them, the first living beings to circle the Moon.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zond_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q372945"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_zond_5_372945"},{"id":"w_ariane_1_18375","name":"Ariane 1","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Rocket of the Ariane family. 1979 - EU Ariane 1, first Ariane European rocket.","verdict":"Advance: Europe's own launcher; independent access to space.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ariane_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18375"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariane_1_18375"},{"id":"w_ariane_4_18387","name":"Ariane 4","year":1988,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"European rocket of the Ariane family. 1988 - EU Ariane 4, first launch of the Ariane 4 rocket.","verdict":"Advance: The workhorse of commercial satellite launch.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ariane_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18387"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariane_4_18387"},{"id":"w_energia_731859","name":"Energia","year":1987,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet launch vehicle. 1988 - USSR Energia delivers a Buran spaceplane to orbit.","verdict":"Advance: Energia lifted 100 tonnes, flying twice, including the uncrewed Buran in 1988.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Energia_(rocket)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q731859"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_energia_731859"},{"id":"w_ariane_5_18532","name":"Ariane 5","year":1996,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Retired rocket series of the Ariane family. 1996 - EU Ariane 5, first flight of the Ariane 5 rocket, self-destructed in flight. After that, Ariane 5 will be the main European rocket for decades.","verdict":"Advance: Heavy lifter that launched JWST.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ariane_5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18532"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ariane_5_18532"},{"id":"w_deep_space_1_49502","name":"Deep Space 1","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"NASA technology demonstration spacecraft. 1998 - US Deep Space 1 is first deep space mission to use an ion thruster for propulsion.","verdict":"Advance: Deep Space 1 (1998) proved ion propulsion and autonomous navigation on a deep-space mission.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deep_Space_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49502"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_deep_space_1_49502"},{"id":"w_zarya_331785","name":"Zarya","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First module of the International Space Station. 1998 - Russia launches the Zarya module, the first part of the International Space Station.","verdict":"Advance: Zarya (1998) was the ISS's first module, and the station has been continuously occupied since 2000.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zarya_(ISS_module)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q331785"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_zarya_331785"},{"id":"w_spaceshipone_38935","name":"SpaceShipOne","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Suborbital, air-launched spaceplane. 2004 - US-based, first privately developed, crewed (suborbital) spaceflight, SpaceShipOne demonstrates reusability.","verdict":"Advance: SpaceShipOne won the X Prize in 2004, the first private crewed spaceflight.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SpaceShipOne","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38935"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_spaceshipone_38935"},{"id":"w_orbital_spaceflight_218455","name":"Orbital spaceflight","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Spaceflight where spacecraft orbits astronomical body. 2014 - First booster rocket returning from an orbital trajectory to achieve a zero-velocity-at-zero-altitude propulsive vertical landing.","verdict":"Advance: Sputnik 1's 4 October 1957 orbit opened the space age; reusable boosters since 2015 have cut orbital costs sharply.","dependencies":["r7","icbm"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Orbital_spaceflight","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218455","https://grokipedia.com/page/R-7_Semyorka"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_orbital_spaceflight_218455"},{"id":"w_spectrum_65245255","name":"Spectrum (Isar Aerospace launcher)","year":2026,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Two-stage small launch vehicle by Isar Aerospace. 2026 Isar Aerospace launches Spectrum, from Andøya Spaceport becoming the first successful flight from a private Launch provider in Northern Europe.","verdict":"Advance: Isar Aerospace's Spectrum launches from Andøya, offering Europe small-launch capacity (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_%28rocket%29","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65245255"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_spectrum_65245255"},{"id":"w_rose_water_900450","name":"Rose water","year":801,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Flavoured water made by distilling rose petals with water. 801 – 873: al-Kindi writes on the distillation of wine as that of rose water and gives 107 recipes for perfumes, in his book Kitab Kimia al-'otoor wa al-tas`eedat (\"Book of the Chemistry of Perfumes and Distillations\"). [ citation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: Al-Kindi's distillation of rose petals made a fragrant export and showed the apparatus that later yielded alcohol and essential oils.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rose_water","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q900450"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_rose_water_900450"},{"id":"w_decomposition_339062","name":"Petroleum distillation (al-Razi)","year":865,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Breaking down of living matter. 865 – 925: al-Razi wrote on Naft ( naphtha or petroleum) and its distillates in his book Kitab sirr al-asrar (\"Book of the Secret of Secrets\").","verdict":"Advance: Al-Razi's distillation of naphtha produced kerosene for lamps in Baghdad, a millennium before the 19th-century oil industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Decomposition","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339062"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_decomposition_339062"},{"id":"w_planetarium_148319","name":"Planetarium","year":810,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about astronomy and the night sky. 810 – 887: Abbas ibn Firnas. Planetarium, artificial crystals. According to one account that was written seven centuries after his death, Ibn Firnas was injured during an elevated winged trial flight.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Kindi's and later mechanical models simulated the sky; Zeiss's 1923 projector created the modern planetarium.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planetarium","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q148319"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_planetarium_148319"},{"id":"w_vitriol_427282","name":"Vitriol","year":957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Index of chemical compounds with the same name. 957: Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masudi, wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj ( vitriol ) water giving sulfuric acid.","verdict":"Advance: Medieval chemists' vitriols and the sulphuric acid derived from them became the most produced industrial chemical, a barometer of manufacturing.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vitriol","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q427282"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_vitriol_427282"},{"id":"w_early_world_maps_2723202","name":"Early world maps","year":1100,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"List of early depictions of the world. 1100–1165: Muhammad al-Idrisi, aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of Andalusia and Sicily. Known for having drawn some of the most advanced ancient world maps.","verdict":"Advance: Al-Idrisi's 1154 Tabula Rogeriana for Roger II of Sicily was the most accurate world map for three centuries.","dependencies":[],"region":"islamic","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Early_world_maps","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2723202"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_early_world_maps_2723202"},{"id":"w_egyptian_numeral_254040","name":"Egyptian numeral","year":-3000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numerals used in Ancient Eygpt. 3000 BC: The first deciphered numeral system is that of the Egyptian numerals, a sign-value system (as opposed to a place-value system).","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian numerals let scribes tally harvests, taxes and pyramid labour, the first deciphered number system.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Egyptian_numerals","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254040"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_egyptian_numeral_254040"},{"id":"w_deben_1181471","name":"Deben","year":-2600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient Egyptian weight unit. 2600 BC: The oldest attested evidence for the existence of units of weight, and weighing scales date to the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, with Deben (unit) balance weights, excavated from the reign of Sneferu, though earlier usage has been…","verdict":"Advance: The Egyptian deben, about 91 g of copper, set an early weight standard for prices and wages.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deben_(unit)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1181471"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_deben_1181471"},{"id":"w_babylonian_numerals_506274","name":"Babylonian numerals","year":-2000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numeral system used in ancient Babylonia. 2000 BC: Primitive positional notation for numerals is seen in the Babylonian cuneiform numerals. However, the lack of clarity around the notion of zero made their system highly ambiguous (e.g. 13 200 would be written the same as 132 ).","verdict":"Advance: Babylonian base-60 positional numerals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Babylonian_cuneiform_numerals","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506274"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_babylonian_numerals_506274"},{"id":"w_egyptian_fraction_1764362","name":"Egyptian fraction","year":-1800,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Finite sum of distinct unit fractions. 1800 BC: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt develops Egyptian fraction notation.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian unit fractions, preserved in the Rhind Papyrus, enabled fair division of bread and land.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Egyptian_fraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1764362"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_egyptian_fraction_1764362"},{"id":"w_ybc_7289_2178529","name":"YBC 7289","year":-1800,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ancient clay tablet showing an approximation of √2. 1800 BC – 1600 BC: A numerical approximation for the square root of two, accurate to 6 decimal places, is recorded on YBC 7289, a Babylonian clay tablet believed to belong to a student.","verdict":"Advance: YBC 7289 (c. 1800 BCE) gives √2 to six decimal places in base 60, a remarkable Babylonian approximation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/YBC_7289","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2178529"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_ybc_7289_2178529"},{"id":"w_vyakarana_2573578","name":"Vyakarana","year":-700,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"The Vedic era study of grammar and linguistics, one of six Vedangas. 700 BC: Grammar is first studied in India (note that Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa predates Pāṇini ).","verdict":"Advance: Pāṇini's grammar (c. 500 BCE) described Sanskrit with formal rules, anticipating modern linguistics and grammar formalisms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2573578"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vyakarana_2573578"},{"id":"w_thales_theorem_285719","name":"Thales' theorem","year":-600,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem. 600 BC: Thales of Miletus is credited with proving Thales's theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Thales' theorem (c. 600 BCE) is among the earliest results credited to a named mathematician with a proof.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Thales's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q285719"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_thales_theorem_285719"},{"id":"w_logical_negation_190558","name":"Logical negation","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Operation that takes a proposition p to another proposition \"not p\", written ¬p, which is interpreted intuitively as being true when p is false, and false when p is true; unary (single-argument) logical connective. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation.","verdict":"Advance: Aristotle's law of non-contradiction made negation central to logic, now built into every digital circuit.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Negation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_logical_negation_190558"},{"id":"w_archimedean_property_634579","name":"Archimedean property","year":-350,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The absence of infinitesimals in a mathematical system. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property.","verdict":"Advance: Eudoxus's axiom, a key step toward rigorous analysis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Archimedean_property","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q634579"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_archimedean_property_634579"},{"id":"w_fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic_670235","name":"Fundamental theorem of arithmetic","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem about prime factorization of a number. 300 BC: Euclid proves the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.","verdict":"Advance: Euclid's Elements implied unique prime factorization, which Gauss proved fully in 1801 and RSA relies on.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q670235"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic_670235"},{"id":"w_euclidean_algorithm_230848","name":"Euclidean algorithm","year":-300,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Algorithm for computing greatest common divisors. 300 BC: Euclid discovers the Euclidean algorithm.","verdict":"Advance: Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisors (c. 300 BCE) is among the oldest algorithms still in use, inside every RSA key computation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Euclidean_algorithm","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q230848"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_euclidean_algorithm_230848"},{"id":"w_apollonius_theorem_877489","name":"Apollonius' theorem","year":-200,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem. 200 BC: Apollonius of Perga discovers Apollonius's theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Classical Greek geometry by Apollonius.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Apollonius's_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q877489"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_apollonius_theorem_877489"},{"id":"w_epicycle_961202","name":"Epicycle","year":-200,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Model of planetary motion in which planets moved in a small circle which in turn moves around the Earth. 200 BC: Apollonius of Perga develops epicycles. While an incorrect model, it was a precursor to the development of Fourier series.","verdict":"Advance: Apollonius and Hipparchus's epicycles predicted planetary positions until Kepler's ellipses replaced them.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deferent_and_epicycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q961202"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_epicycle_961202"},{"id":"w_stellar_precession_83094","name":"Stellar precession","year":-150,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gravity-induced, slow, and continuous change in the orientation of an astronomical body's rotational axis. 2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers Axial precession.","verdict":"Advance: Hipparchus discovered the precession of the equinoxes (c. 130 BCE) by comparing star positions over 150 years.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Axial_precession","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83094"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_stellar_precession_83094"},{"id":"w_magic_square_192089","name":"Magic square","year":-190,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Sums of each row, column, and main diagonals are equal. 190 BC: Magic squares appear in China. The theory of magic squares can be considered the first example of a vector space.","verdict":"Advance: Chinese magic squares, studied for divination, led to recreational mathematics and combinatorial designs.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magic_square","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192089"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_magic_square_192089"},{"id":"w_greek_alphabetic_numerals_108645","name":"Greek alphabetic numerals","year":150,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Numeration system used by the Koine Greek and earlier. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number.","verdict":"Advance: Greek alphabetic numerals, used in Ptolemy's Almagest, were standard in Hellenistic astronomy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Greek_numerals","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108645"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_greek_alphabetic_numerals_108645"},{"id":"w_methods_of_computing_square_roots_1197114","name":"Methods of computing square roots","year":-1800,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algorithms for calculating square roots. By the 4th century: A square root finding algorithm with quartic convergence, known as the Bakhshali method (after the Bakhshali manuscript which records it), is discovered in India.","verdict":"Advance: Babylonian square-root methods, rediscovered by Heron, iterate quickly toward the answer, the ancestor of Newton's method.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_algorithms","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1197114"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_methods_of_computing_square_roots_1197114"},{"id":"w_principal_ideal_domain_1143969","name":"Principal ideal domain","year":499,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algebraic structure. 499: Aryabhata discovers Bezout's identity, a foundational result to the theory of principal ideal domains.","verdict":"Advance: Āryabhaṭa's kuṭṭaka method solved linear Diophantine equations, a forerunner of Bézout's identity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Principal_ideal_domain","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143969"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_principal_ideal_domain_1143969"},{"id":"w_brahmagupta_s_formula_1149348","name":"Brahmagupta's formula","year":628,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theorem. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals.","verdict":"Advance: Brahmagupta's formula (628) gives the area of cyclic quadrilaterals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brahmagupta's_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1149348"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_brahmagupta_s_formula_1149348"},{"id":"w_brahmagupta_s_interpolation_formula_17003778","name":"Brahmagupta's interpolation formula","year":628,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Second-order polynomial interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula.","verdict":"Advance: Brahmagupta's second-order interpolation (665) improved astronomical tables.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta%27s_interpolation_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17003778"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_brahmagupta_s_interpolation_formula_17003778"},{"id":"w_algorism_864014","name":"Algorism","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical technique for arithmetic. 9th century: Algorisms (arithmetical algorithms on numbers written in place-value system) are described by al-Khwarizmi in his kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ( Book of Indian computation ) and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ( Addit…","verdict":"Advance: Hindu-Arabic arithmetic algorithms; the word \"algorithm\" comes from al-Khwarizmi.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Algorism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q864014"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_algorism_864014"},{"id":"w_greedy_algorithm_for_egyptian_fractions_5601712","name":"Greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions","year":850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Simple method for finding Egyptian fractions. 9th century: Mahāvīra discovers the first algorithm for writing fractions as Egyptian fractions, which is in fact a slightly more general form of the Greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions.","verdict":"Advance: Egyptian-fraction methods, described by Fibonacci in 1202 and earlier Indian mathematicians, are an early example of a greedy algorithm.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Greedy_algorithm_for_Egyptian_fractions","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5601712"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_greedy_algorithm_for_egyptian_fractions_5601712"},{"id":"w_true_north_339264","name":"True north","year":1050,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Direction on Earth's surface. 11th century: Shen Kuo discovers the concepts of true north and magnetic declination.","verdict":"Advance: Shen Kuo distinguished true north from magnetic north in the 11th century, needed for accurate navigation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/True_north","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339264"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_true_north_339264"},{"id":"w_generalized_continued_fraction_4115724","name":"Generalized continued fraction","year":1380,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Generalization of continued fractions in which the partial numerators and partial denominators can assume arbitrary complex values. 1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers continued fractions and uses them to solve transcendental equations.","verdict":"Advance: Madhava's infinite series and continued fractions computed π to 11 places.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Continued_fraction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4115724"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_generalized_continued_fraction_4115724"},{"id":"w_vieta_s_formulas_570779","name":"Vieta's formulas","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Relations between the coefficients and the roots of a polynomial. 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas.","verdict":"Advance: Viète's formulas (1591) relate polynomial roots and coefficients, used in algebra and physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vieta's_formulas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q570779"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vieta_s_formulas_570779"},{"id":"w_vi_te_s_formula_949597","name":"Viète's formula","year":1550,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Infinite product converging to the inverse of π. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π. 1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q}.","verdict":"Advance: Viète's 1593 infinite product for π was the first infinite product in European mathematics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vi%C3%A8te's_formula","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q949597"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1593)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vi_te_s_formula_949597"},{"id":"w_gresham_s_law_648404","name":"Gresham's law","year":1517,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Monetary principle on circulating currency; \"bad money drives out good\". 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: (\"Bad money drowns out good\").","verdict":"Advance: \"Bad money drives out good,\" noted by Copernicus in 1517 and named after Thomas Gresham, still guides currency design and monetary policy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gresham's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q648404"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_gresham_s_law_648404"},{"id":"w_optical_telescope_35273","name":"Optical telescope","year":1608,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Telescope which is used to focus light from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. 1608: Earliest record of an optical telescope.","verdict":"Advance: Hans Lipperhey's 1608 telescope patent began telescopic astronomy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_telescope","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35273"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_optical_telescope_35273"},{"id":"w_spontaneous_generation_178263","name":"Spontaneous generation","year":1668,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Disproven theory of life arising from nonliving matter. 1668: Francesco Redi: disproved idea of spontaneous generation.","verdict":"Advance: Francesco Redi's 1668 covered jars showed maggots come from flies, not rotting meat, which Pasteur confirmed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spontaneous_generation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178263"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_spontaneous_generation_178263"},{"id":"w_fossil_40614","name":"Fossil","year":1669,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Preserved remains or traces of organisms from a past geological age. 1669: Nicholas Steno: proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy.","verdict":"Advance: Nicolas Steno's 1669 recognition of fossils as remains of living creatures founded palaeontology and stratigraphy.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fossil","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40614"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fossil_40614"},{"id":"w_epigenetics_26939","name":"Epigenetics","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Study of changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype. 1669: Jan Swammerdam: epigenesis in insects.","verdict":"Advance: Conrad Waddington's 1942 term \"epigenetics\" captured how gene expression is regulated beyond the sequence, a field now central to development and cancer research.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Epigenetics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26939"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_epigenetics_26939"},{"id":"w_microorganism_39833","name":"Microorganism","year":1675,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Microscopic living organism. 1675: Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observes microorganisms using a refined simple microscope.","verdict":"Advance: Van Leeuwenhoek's 1676 sighting of \"animalcules\" revealed a microbial world that became the basis of germ theory, vaccines and biotech.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microorganism","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39833"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_microorganism_39833"},{"id":"w_fundamental_interaction_104934","name":"Fundamental interaction","year":1687,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Any of the physical interactions or forces: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear. 1687: Sir Isaac Newton: classical mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion.","verdict":"Advance: Newton's gravity (1687) was the first fundamental force described mathematically; three more were found by the 20th century.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fundamental_interaction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104934"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fundamental_interaction_104934"},{"id":"w_atmosphere_of_venus_1941","name":"Atmosphere of Venus","year":1761,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Atmosphere of planet Venus. 1761: Mikhail Lomonosov: discovery of the atmosphere of Venus.","verdict":"Advance: Lomonosov found Venus had an atmosphere.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atmosphere_of_Venus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1941"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atmosphere_of_venus_1941"},{"id":"w_extinction_123509","name":"Extinction","year":1796,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member. 1796: Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact.","verdict":"Advance: Cuvier's 1796 mammoth paper proved that species can vanish forever, which reframed deep time and set up both evolution and conservation biology.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extinction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123509"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_extinction_123509"},{"id":"w_carnot_cycle_188910","name":"Carnot cycle","year":1824,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. 1824: Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine.","verdict":"Advance: Carnot's 1824 idealized cycle of two isotherms and two adiabats is the benchmark every real engine is measured against.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carnot_cycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188910"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_carnot_cycle_188910"},{"id":"w_group_83478","name":"Group","year":1827,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Algebraic set with an invertible, associative internal operation admitting a neutral element. 1827: Évariste Galois development of group theory.","verdict":"Advance: Évariste Galois's group theory (1830s) explained polynomial solvability and underlies physics symmetries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Group_(mathematics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_group_83478"},{"id":"w_turing_completeness_197970","name":"Turing completeness","year":1936,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Ability of a computing system to simulate Turing machines. 1837: Charles Babbage proposes a design for the construction of a Turing complete, general purpose Computer, to be called the Analytical Engine.","verdict":"Advance: Turing's 1936 universal machine defined computability, the theoretical core of every programmable computer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turing_completeness","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197970"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_turing_completeness_197970"},{"id":"w_conservation_of_energy_11382","name":"Conservation of energy","year":1843,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Law of physics and chemistry. 1843: James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy ( first law of thermodynamics ), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy.","verdict":"Advance: Joule's 1843 heat experiments showed energy is conserved, leading to the first law of thermodynamics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Conservation_of_energy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11382"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_conservation_of_energy_11382"},{"id":"w_absolute_zero_81182","name":"Absolute zero","year":1702,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Coldest possible temperature. 1702 – Guillaume Amontons introduces the concept of absolute zero, based on observations of gases","verdict":"Advance: Defined the floor of temperature; a foundation of thermodynamics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Absolute_zero","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81182"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_absolute_zero_81182"},{"id":"w_spiegeleisen_1800461","name":"Spiegeleisen","year":1856,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pig iron containing a high level of manganese used in the manufacture of steel. 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Mushet's 1856 manganese-rich spiegeleisen fixed Bessemer steel's brittleness, making the process commercially viable.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegeleisen","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1800461"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_spiegeleisen_1800461"},{"id":"w_diffuse_sky_radiation_249023","name":"Diffuse sky radiation","year":1871,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Solar radiation scattered and absorbed in Earth's atmosphere. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation ( Rayleigh scattering ) explains why sky appears blue.","verdict":"Advance: Rayleigh's 1871 sky-radiation theory explains diffuse skylight, important for solar energy and climate.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diffuse_sky_radiation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249023"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_diffuse_sky_radiation_249023"},{"id":"w_van_der_waals_force_189627","name":"Van der Waals' force","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Residual forces between molecules or atomic groups not arising from covalent or ionic bonds. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force.","verdict":"Advance: Van der Waals's 1873 intermolecular forces explain gecko adhesion and liquid behaviour.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Van_der_Waals_force","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189627"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_van_der_waals_force_189627"},{"id":"w_chemical_thermodynamics_739016","name":"Chemical thermodynamics","year":1876,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Study of chemical reactions within the laws of thermodynamics. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule.","verdict":"Advance: Josiah Willard Gibbs' 1876 free energy and phase rule put chemistry on thermodynamic footing, predicting which reactions can go.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chemical_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q739016"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_chemical_thermodynamics_739016"},{"id":"w_three_phase_electric_power_471846","name":"Three-phase electric power","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Common electrical power generation, transmission and distribution method for alternating currents.","verdict":"Advance: Three-phase AC, developed by Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Tesla and others by 1891, carries most of the world's electric power.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Three-phase_electric_power","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471846"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_three_phase_electric_power_471846"},{"id":"w_third_law_of_thermodynamics_29166","name":"Third law of thermodynamics","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Law of physics stating that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is exactly equal to zero. 1906: Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics","verdict":"Advance: Nernst's 1906 heat theorem set entropy to zero at absolute zero, guiding cryogenics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Third_law_of_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29166"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_third_law_of_thermodynamics_29166"},{"id":"w_oil_drop_experiment_649803","name":"Oil drop experiment","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Experiment conducted by R. A. Millikan and H. Fletcher to measure elementary electric charge. 1909: Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron","verdict":"Advance: Millikan and Fletcher's 1909 oil-drop experiment measured the electron's charge.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Oil_drop_experiment","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q649803"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_oil_drop_experiment_649803"},{"id":"w_atomic_number_23809","name":"Atomic number","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. 1913: Henry Moseley: defined atomic number","verdict":"Advance: Moseley ordered the periodic table by atomic number.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atomic_number","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23809"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_atomic_number_23809"},{"id":"w_schwarzschild_radius_72755","name":"Schwarzschild radius","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Distance from a massive body where the escape velocity equals the speed of light. 1915: Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes","verdict":"Advance: Karl Schwarzschild's 1916 radius defined the event horizon of black holes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Schwarzschild_radius","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q72755"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_schwarzschild_radius_72755"},{"id":"w_pauli_exclusion_principle_131594","name":"Pauli exclusion principle","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Quantum mechanical principle that two identical fermions cannot occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. 1924: Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle","verdict":"Advance: Wolfgang Pauli's 1925 exclusion principle explains the periodic table and neutron star stability.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pauli_exclusion_principle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131594"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pauli_exclusion_principle_131594"},{"id":"w_metallicity_217030","name":"Metallicity","year":1925,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Fraction of mass of a star or other kind of astronomical object that is not in hydrogen or helium. 1925: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: Discovery of the composition of the Sun and that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe","verdict":"Advance: Cecilia Payne's 1925 thesis showed stars are mostly hydrogen, a landmark in astrophysics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metallicity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217030"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_metallicity_217030"},{"id":"w_law_of_thermodynamics_849392","name":"Law of thermodynamics","year":1929,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Observational basis of the study of thermodynamics. 1929: Lars Onsager 's reciprocal relations, a potential fourth law of thermodynamics","verdict":"Advance: Lars Onsager's 1931 reciprocal relations extended thermodynamics to non-equilibrium flows.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laws_of_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849392"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_law_of_thermodynamics_849392"},{"id":"w_calorie_restriction_1332886","name":"Calorie restriction","year":1934,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Dietary regime. 1934: Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species","verdict":"Advance: Clive McCay's 1935 finding that underfed rats lived longer opened the science of ageing; human benefits remain under study.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Calorie_restriction","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1332886"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_calorie_restriction_1332886"},{"id":"w_hela_847482","name":"HeLa","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cell line. 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa","verdict":"Advance: Cells from Henrietta Lacks, cultured in 1951, became the first immortal human line, used for the polio vaccine and countless studies but taken without consent.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/HeLa","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q847482"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hela_847482"},{"id":"w_plate_tectonics_7950","name":"Plate tectonics","year":1963,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics ( Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis ).","verdict":"Advance: Vine, Matthews and Morley's 1963 seafloor magnetic stripes confirmed seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.","dependencies":[],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plate_tectonics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7950"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_plate_tectonics_7950"},{"id":"w_hayflick_limit_899798","name":"Hayflick limit","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Number of times a normal human cell population will divide until cell division stops; (in culture) phenomenon, when fibroblasts can reach a maximum of 50 cell divisions before becoming senescent. 1965: Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit","verdict":"Advance: Leonard Hayflick showed in 1961–65 that normal human cells divide only about 50 times, tying ageing to telomeres and refuting cellular immortality.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hayflick_limit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899798"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hayflick_limit_899798"},{"id":"w_collider_detector_at_fermilab_1109426","name":"Collider Detector at Fermilab","year":1997,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American experimental physics device (1985–2011). 1997: CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab: Top quark.","verdict":"Advance: Fermilab's CDF and DØ experiments discovered the top quark in 1995.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collider_Detector_at_Fermilab","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1109426"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_collider_detector_at_fermilab_1109426"},{"id":"w_arithmetic_progression_170008","name":"Arithmetic progression","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Sequence of numbers with constant differences between consecutive numbers. 2004: Ben Green and Terence Tao announce their proof on arithmetic progressions in prime numbers known as the Green–Tao Theorem.","verdict":"Advance: Green–Tao theorem: primes contain arbitrarily long progressions.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Arithmetic_progression","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170008"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_arithmetic_progression_170008"},{"id":"w_neanderthal_genome_project_2592575","name":"Neanderthal genome project","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Effort to sequence the Neanderthal genome. 2010: The Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding likely occurred and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations.","verdict":"Advance: Svante Pääbo's 2010 Neanderthal genome showed interbreeding with humans, earning the 2022 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neanderthal_genome_project","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2592575"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 2006)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_neanderthal_genome_project_2592575"},{"id":"w_photonic_matter_14948533","name":"Photonic matter","year":2012,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theoretical natural state of matter. 2012: Photonic molecules are discovered at MIT","verdict":"Advance: Harvard and MIT's 2013 photonic molecules bound photons together via Rydberg atoms.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photonic_molecule","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14948533"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_photonic_matter_14948533"},{"id":"w_gw170817_38080891","name":"GW170817","year":2017,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Gravitational wave signal detected by the LIGO observatory on 17 August 2017. 2017: Gravitational wave signal GW170817 is observed by the LIGO / Virgo collaboration.","verdict":"Advance: LIGO and Virgo's GW170817 detected merging neutron stars, confirming gold production in kilonovae.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/GW170817","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38080891"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gw170817_38080891"},{"id":"w_stratospheric_observatory_for_infrared_a_261229","name":"Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Retired NASA airborne infrared observatory. 2020: NASA and SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy) discover about 350 mL of surface water in one of the Moon's largest visible craters.","verdict":"Advance: NASA's SOFIA airborne telescope confirmed water on the Moon's sunlit surface in 2020.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stratospheric_Observatory_for_Infrared_Astronomy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q261229"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_stratospheric_observatory_for_infrared_a_261229"},{"id":"w_cadmium_selenide_420704","name":"Cadmium selenide","year":1932,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chemical compound. 1932 - Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in Cadmium selenide (CdSe), a photovoltaic material still used today.","verdict":"Advance: Cadmium selenide's photoconductivity enabled light sensors and, as quantum dots, the vivid colours of QLED displays.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cadmium_selenide","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420704"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#w_cadmium_selenide_420704"},{"id":"w_passivation_917260","name":"Passivation","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physico-chemical processes contributing to protect a surface against oxidation. 1957 – Mohamed M. Atalla develops the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell Laboratories. The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency.","verdict":"Advance: Mohamed Atalla's 1957 thermal oxide passivation made the silicon MOSFET and planar chips possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Passivation_(chemistry)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q917260"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_passivation_917260"},{"id":"w_soyuz_1_211254","name":"Soyuz 1","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"First crewed flight of the Soyuz programme. 1967 - Soyuz 1 is the first crewed spacecraft to be powered by solar cells","verdict":"Advance: Soyuz 1 (April 1967) killed Vladimir Komarov when the parachute failed, a tragedy that led to Soyuz redesign.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soyuz_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211254"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_soyuz_1_211254"},{"id":"w_skylab_190776","name":"Skylab","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Space station launched and operated by NASA. 1973 - Skylab is powered by solar cells.","verdict":"Advance: Skylab (1973–79) hosted three crews for up to 84 days, proving long stays and solar astronomy in orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Skylab","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190776"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_skylab_190776"},{"id":"w_amorphous_silicon_474163","name":"Amorphous silicon","year":1982,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Non-crystalline silicon. 1982 - The first >10% amorphous silicon thin-film solar cell is reported.","verdict":"Advance: Amorphous silicon cut solar cell costs for small devices.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amorphous_silicon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q474163"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_amorphous_silicon_474163"},{"id":"w_dye_sensitized_solar_cell_81121","name":"Dye-sensitized solar cell","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of thin-film solar cell. 1988 - The Dye-sensitized solar cell is created by Michael Grätzel and Brian O'Regan. These photoelectrochemical cells work from an organic dye compound inside the cell and cost half as much as silicon solar cells.","verdict":"Advance: Michael Grätzel's 1991 dye cell mimicked photosynthesis with cheap materials, useful for low-light indoor solar.","dependencies":["solar_pv"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81121"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_dye_sensitized_solar_cell_81121"},{"id":"w_photoelectrochemical_cell_901332","name":"Photoelectrochemical cell","year":1991,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Sources of electricity or hydrogen via electrolysis. 1991 - Efficient photoelectrochemical cells are developed","verdict":"Advance: Efficient light-driven water splitting (Fujishima–Honda, 1972) aims to make solar hydrogen directly.","dependencies":["solar_pv"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Photoelectrochemical_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901332"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_photoelectrochemical_cell_901332"},{"id":"w_multijunction_photovoltaic_cell_452346","name":"Multijunction photovoltaic cell","year":1994,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Solar power cell with multiple band gaps from different materials. 1994 - NREL develops a GaInP/GaAs two-terminal concentrator cell (180 suns) which becomes the first solar cell to exceed 30% conversion efficiency. [ citation needed ]","verdict":"Advance: NREL's 1994 GaInP/GaAs tandem cell passed 30% efficiency, and multijunction cells now power satellites at more than 47%.","dependencies":["solar_pv"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Multi-junction_solar_cell","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q452346"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_multijunction_photovoltaic_cell_452346"},{"id":"w_polycrystalline_silicon_737038","name":"Polycrystalline silicon","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"High purity, polycrystalline form of silicon. 2006 - Polysilicon use in photovoltaics exceeds all other polysilicon use for the first time.","verdict":"Advance: Polysilicon for photovoltaics passed electronics demand in 2006, and costs fell so far that solar is now the cheapest power in many markets.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Polycrystalline_silicon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q737038"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_polycrystalline_silicon_737038"},{"id":"w_prism_165896","name":"Prism","year":2016,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. 2016 - University of New South Wales engineers established a new world record for unfocused sunlight conversion to electricity with an efficiency increase to 34.5%.","verdict":"Advance: UNSW's 2016 metamaterial prisms bent light in new ways for nanophotonics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Prism_(optics)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165896"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_prism_165896"},{"id":"w_solar_cell_efficiency_7556087","name":"Solar cell efficiency","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ratio of energy extracted from sunlight in solar cells. 2019 - The world record for solar cell efficiency at 47.1% was achieved by using multi-junction concentrator solar cells, developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USA.","verdict":"Advance: Record cells reached 47.1% under concentration in 2019, pushing solar toward its thermodynamic limits.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_solar_cells","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7556087"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_solar_cell_efficiency_7556087"},{"id":"w_space_elevator_1473823","name":"Space elevator","year":1895,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Proposed type of space transportation system. First proposal of space elevator. Russia Konstantin Tsiolkovsky","verdict":"Advance: Tsiolkovsky's tower to orbit; still a proposal, a cheap path to space if materials allow.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_elevator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1473823"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_space_elevator_1473823"},{"id":"w_geostationary_orbit_192316","name":"Geostationary orbit","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Geosynchronous orbit with zero eccentricity at a fixed longitude and a nominally fixed latitude; common orbit for communications satellites. Article in Wireless World, \"Extra-Terrestrial Relays — Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?\" makes first discussion of geostationary satellites as a means of communication. UK Arthur C. Clarke","verdict":"Advance: Clarke's 1945 proposal of geostationary relays; the orbit that carries global TV and weather.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Geostationary_orbit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192316"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_geostationary_orbit_192316"},{"id":"w_far_side_of_the_moon_816838","name":"Far side of the Moon","year":1959,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hemisphere of the Moon that always faces away from Earth. First photos of another world from space: the far side of the Moon. First gravity assist. USSR Luna 3","verdict":"Advance: Luna 3's images of the far side (1959) revealed a cratered highland with few maria; Chang'e 4 landed there in 2019.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Far_side_of_the_Moon","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816838"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_far_side_of_the_moon_816838"},{"id":"w_mars_1_678689","name":"Mars 1","year":1962,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Soviet space probe launched in 1962. First Mars flyby (11,000 km) but contact was lost. USSR Mars 1","verdict":"Advance: Mars 1 (1962) flew within 193,000 km of Mars after contact was lost, the first Mars flyby.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mars_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q678689"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mars_1_678689"},{"id":"w_gemini_3_682628","name":"Gemini 3","year":1965,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1965 American crewed space mission. First crewed spacecraft to change orbit. USA (NASA) Gemini 3","verdict":"Advance: Gemini 3 (March 1965) was the first crewed spacecraft to change its orbit.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gemini_3","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682628"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_gemini_3_682628"},{"id":"w_lunar_orbiter_4_1066381","name":"Lunar Orbiter 4","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Space probe. First photos of the Lunar south pole. USA Lunar Orbiter 4","verdict":"Advance: Lunar Orbiter 4 (1967) mapped 99% of the near side and the first images of the south pole.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1066381"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lunar_orbiter_4_1066381"},{"id":"w_soyuz_4_619807","name":"Soyuz 4","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Crewed flight of the Soyuz programme. First docking between two crewed spacecraft in Earth orbit. First crew exchange in space. USSR Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5","verdict":"Advance: Soyuz 4 and 5 (1969) performed the first docking of two crewed spacecraft and the first crew transfer.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Soyuz_4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q619807"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_soyuz_4_619807"},{"id":"w_titan_2565","name":"Discovery of Titan (Huygens)","year":1655,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":1,"summary":"Largest moon of Saturn. Saturn flyby (closest approach 124,000 km), close encounter of Titan and encounters with a dozen other moons. USA (NASA) Voyager 1","verdict":"Advance: Christiaan Huygens's 1655 discovery of Titan opened the study of outer planet moons; Huygens probe landed there in 2005.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Titan_(moon)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2565"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_titan_2565"},{"id":"w_family_portrait_1370491","name":"Family Portrait","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"38-part mosaic image of the Solar System acquired by Voyager 1. First photograph of the whole Solar System ( Family Portrait ). USA (NASA) Voyager 1","verdict":"Advance: Voyager 1's 1990 \"Family Portrait\" captured Earth as a pale blue dot, giving humanity perspective.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Family_Portrait_(Voyager)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1370491"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_family_portrait_1370491"},{"id":"w_free_space_optical_communication_2027432","name":"Free-space optical communication","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Communication using light sent through free space. First laser communication with a lunar satellite. USA (NASA) Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter","verdict":"Advance: NASA's LADEE laser link (2013) beamed 622 Mbit/s from lunar orbit, showing lasers can outpace radio for deep-space data.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Free-space_optical_communication","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_space_exploration","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2027432"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_free_space_optical_communication_2027432"},{"id":"w_architonnerre_4787225","name":"Architonnerre","year":1450,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Project by Leonardo da Vinci. Late 15th century AD: Leonardo Da Vinci described the Architonnerre, a steam-powered cannon.","verdict":"Advance: Leonardo's steam cannon concept; never built in his time.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Architonnerre","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4787225"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_architonnerre_4787225"},{"id":"w_turbine_130760","name":"Turbine","year":1629,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow. 1629 ( 1629 ): Giovanni Branca suggests using a steam turbine device similar to that described by Taqi al-Din but intended to be used to power a series of pestles working in mortars.","verdict":"Advance: Giovanni Branca's 1629 steam-jet wheel was an early impulse turbine, an idea realized in Parsons' 1884 steam turbine.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130760"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_turbine_130760"},{"id":"w_compound_steam_engine_16000066","name":"Compound steam engine","year":1781,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of steam engine where steam is expanded in two or more stages.","verdict":"Advance: Jonathan Hornblower's 1781 compound engine reused steam in two cylinders, and Woolf and later marine engines cut coal use dramatically.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Compound_steam_engine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16000066"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_compound_steam_engine_16000066"},{"id":"w_sun_and_planet_gear_3054324","name":"Sun and planet gear","year":1782,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of gear used in early beam engines. 1782 ( 1782 ): First Watt rotative engine, driving a flywheel by means of the sun and planet gear rather than a crank, thus avoiding James Pickard 's patent. Watt secures further patents in this year and 1784.","verdict":"Advance: William Murdoch's sun-and-planet gearing let Watt's 1782 engine turn wheels, converting steam to rotary power for mills.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sun_and_planet_gear","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3054324"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sun_and_planet_gear_3054324"},{"id":"w_parallel_motion_1368117","name":"Parallel motion","year":1783,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mechanical engineering. 1783 ( 1783 ): Watt builds his first \"double acting\" engine, which admits steam so as to alternately act on one side of the piston then on the other, and the introduction of his parallel motion linkage allows the transmission of the pow…","verdict":"Advance: Watt's 1784 parallel-motion linkage, which he called his proudest invention, guided piston rods in straight lines for double-acting engines.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parallel_motion_linkage","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1368117"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_parallel_motion_1368117"},{"id":"w_centrifugal_governor_375647","name":"Centrifugal governor","year":1788,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mechanism for automatically controlling the speed of an engine. 1788 ( 1788 ): Watt builds the first steam engine to use a centrifugal governor for the Boulton & Watt Soho factory.","verdict":"Advance: Watt's 1788 flyball governor regulated engine speed automatically, the first widespread feedback controller and the root of cybernetics.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Centrifugal_governor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q375647"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_centrifugal_governor_375647"},{"id":"w_catch_me_who_can_440620","name":"Catch Me Who Can","year":1808,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early British steam locomotive (1808). 1808 ( 1808 ): Richard Trevithick demonstrates the passenger carrying railway with his \"steam circus\" (using the locomotive Catch Me Who Can on a circular track) in London.","verdict":"Advance: Richard Trevithick's 1808 Catch Me Who Can carried paying riders on a London circle, the first passenger locomotive demonstration.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Catch_Me_Who_Can","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q440620"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_catch_me_who_can_440620"},{"id":"w_killingworth_locomotives_2664354","name":"Killingworth locomotives","year":1815,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early experimental steam locomotives. 1815 ( 1815 ): George Stephenson builds Blücher - similar to Blenkinsop model.","verdict":"Advance: George Stephenson's Killingworth engines (from 1814) refined locomotive design toward the Rocket.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Killingworth_locomotives","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2664354"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_killingworth_locomotives_2664354"},{"id":"w_tesla_s_oscillator_7705501","name":"Tesla's oscillator","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Steam-powered electric generator. 1893 ( 1893 ): Nikola Tesla patents a steam powered oscillating electro-mechanical generator.","verdict":"Advance: Tesla's 1893 steam-driven oscillator generated stable AC directly, an experimental precursor to compact generators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tesla's_oscillator","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7705501"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_tesla_s_oscillator_7705501"},{"id":"w_tesla_turbine_1287337","name":"Tesla turbine","year":1913,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bladeless centripetal flow turbine. 1913 ( 1913 ): Nikola Tesla patents a bladeless steam turbine that utilizes the boundary layer effect. This design has never been used commercially due to its low efficiency.","verdict":"Advance: Tesla's 1913 bladeless disc turbine used fluid friction, ingenious but never efficient enough for wide use.","dependencies":["w_turbine_130760"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tesla_turbine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_steam_power","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1287337"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_tesla_turbine_1287337"},{"id":"w_paraboloid_192768","name":"Paraboloid","year":1663,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Quadric surface of special kind. 1663 — Scottish mathematician James Gregory designs a reflecting telescope with paraboloid primary mirror and ellipsoid secondary mirror.","verdict":"Advance: James Gregory's 1663 design used a paraboloidal mirror for sharp focus, the shape of satellite dishes and telescopes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Paraboloid","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192768"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_paraboloid_192768"},{"id":"w_curved_mirror_1506584","name":"Curved mirror","year":1668,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Mirror with a curved reflecting surface. 1668 — Isaac Newton produces the first functioning reflecting telescope using a spherical primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. This design is termed the ' Newtonian '.","verdict":"Advance: Curved mirrors, perfected in Newton's reflector, focus light without the chromatic distortion of lenses.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Curved_mirror","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1506584"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_curved_mirror_1506584"},{"id":"w_aerial_telescope_3232452","name":"Aerial telescope","year":1684,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Very long focal length refracting telescope without a tube, built in the 17th century; the objective was mounted on a pole, tree, etc. on a swivel ball-joint; the observer stood on the ground and maneuvered the eyepiece to aim at celestial objects. 1684 — Christiaan Huygens publishes \"Astroscopia Compendiaria\" in which he described the design of very long aerial telescopes.","verdict":"Advance: Long-focus telescopes before achromatic optics; a clever workaround.","dependencies":["w_refracting_telescope_216778"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_telescope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3232452"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_aerial_telescope_3232452"},{"id":"w_parabolic_reflector_1087850","name":"Parabolic reflector","year":1720,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Reflector / collector that has the shape of a paraboloid. 1720 — John Hadley develops ways of aspherizing spherical mirrors to make very accurate parabolic mirrors and produces a much improved Gregorian telescope","verdict":"Advance: John Hadley's parabolic mirrors (1721) made reflecting telescopes practical.","dependencies":["w_paraboloid_192768"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Parabolic_reflector","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1087850"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_parabolic_reflector_1087850"},{"id":"w_achromatic_lens_340600","name":"Achromatic lens","year":1733,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Optical instrument corrected for dispersion at 2 wavelengths. 1733 — Chester Moore Hall invents the achromatic lens.","verdict":"Advance: Removed color fringing from lenses; sharper telescopes and microscopes.","dependencies":["w_lens_768575"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Achromatic_lens","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q340600"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_achromatic_lens_340600"},{"id":"w_eyepiece_193516","name":"Eyepiece","year":1880,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of lens attached to a variety of optical devices such as telescopes and microscopes; usually the lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks through the device, placed near the focal point of the objective to magnify the image. 1880 — Ernst Abbe designs the first orthoscopic eyepiece (Kellner's was solely achromatic rather than orthoscopic, despite his description).","verdict":"Advance: Eyepieces from Huygens to Abbe magnified images, refining telescopes and microscopes.","dependencies":["w_lens_768575"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Eyepiece","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193516"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_eyepiece_193516"},{"id":"w_great_paris_exhibition_telescope_of_2162_4454110","name":"Great Paris Exhibition Telescope","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Future monumental telescope in Paris. 1900 — The largest refractor ever, Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of 49.2 inch (1.25 m) diameter is temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition.","verdict":"Advance: The 1900 Paris Exhibition refractor (1.25 m lens) was the largest ever built but impractical.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Paris_Exhibition_Telescope_of_1900","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4454110"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_great_paris_exhibition_telescope_of_2162_4454110"},{"id":"w_schmidt_camera_891841","name":"Schmidt camera","year":1930,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scientific instrument. 1930 — Bernhard Schmidt invents the Schmidt camera.","verdict":"Advance: Bernhard Schmidt's 1930 wide-field telescope camera photographed large sky areas sharply, used for the Palomar Sky Survey.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Schmidt_camera","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q891841"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_schmidt_camera_891841"},{"id":"w_maksutov_telescope_1886563","name":"Maksutov telescope","year":1944,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Catadioptric telescope design. 1944 — Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov invents the Maksutov telescope.","verdict":"Advance: Dmitri Maksutov's 1944 telescope used a meniscus lens to create compact, popular amateur telescopes.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maksutov_telescope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1886563"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_maksutov_telescope_1886563"},{"id":"w_neutrino_detector_583152","name":"Neutrino detector","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos. 1967 — The first neutrino telescope opened in Africa.","verdict":"Advance: The 1965 East Rand neutrino detector in a South African mine first detected cosmic-ray neutrinos.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neutrino_detector","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q583152"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_neutrino_detector_583152"},{"id":"w_bta_6_787671","name":"BTA-6","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Large telescope in Russia. 1975 — BTA-6 is the first major telescope to use an altazimuth mount, which is mechanically simpler but requires computer control for accurate pointing.","verdict":"Advance: The 1975 Soviet BTA-6 6 m telescope pioneered computer-controlled altazimuth mounts.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BTA-6","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q787671"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bta_6_787671"},{"id":"w_spitzer_space_telescope_201953","name":"Spitzer Space Telescope","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Decommissioned NASA infrared space observatory. 2003 — The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an infrared space observatory launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of the NASA Great Observatories program","verdict":"Advance: Spitzer (2003) studied infrared sources, revealing the TRAPPIST-1 planets.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spitzer_Space_Telescope","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescope_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201953"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_spitzer_space_telescope_201953"},{"id":"w_newton_s_law_of_cooling_2902868","name":"Newton's law of cooling","year":1701,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Physical law. 1701 — Newton publishes anonymously a method of determining the rate of heat loss of a body and introduces a scale, which had 0 degrees represent the freezing point of water, and 12 degrees for human body temperature.","verdict":"Advance: Newton's 1701 law of cooling describes heat loss proportional to temperature difference, used in forensics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Newton's_law_of_cooling","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2902868"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_newton_s_law_of_cooling_2902868"},{"id":"w_barograph_1146365","name":"Barograph","year":1845,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A barometer that records the barometric pressure over time in graphical form. 1845 — Francis Ronalds invents the first successful Barograph based on photography","verdict":"Advance: Francis Ronalds's 1845 photographic barograph recorded pressure continuously.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Barograph","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1146365"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_barograph_1146365"},{"id":"w_hypsometer_1582740","name":"Hypsometer","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Instrument for measuring height or elevation. 1849 — Henri Victor Regnault – Hypsometer","verdict":"Advance: Regnault's hypsometer (1849) determines altitude from water's boiling point.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hypsometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1582740"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hypsometer_1582740"},{"id":"w_pyrometer_903715","name":"Pyrometer","year":1864,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Remote-sensing thermometer used to measure high temperatures. 1864 — Henri Becquerel suggests an optical pyrometer","verdict":"Advance: Optical pyrometers measure furnace temperatures without contact, essential in steelmaking.","dependencies":["thermometer"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pyrometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q903715"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pyrometer_903715"},{"id":"w_resistance_thermometer_848041","name":"Resistance thermometer","year":1871,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of temperature sensor (thermometer). 1871 — William Siemens describes the Resistance thermometer at the Bakerian Lecture","verdict":"Advance: William Siemens's 1871 platinum resistance thermometer became a precise temperature standard.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Resistance_thermometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848041"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_resistance_thermometer_848041"},{"id":"w_mcleod_gauge_2426506","name":"McLeod gauge","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of measuring device. 1874 — Herbert McLeod invents the McLeod gauge","verdict":"Advance: Herbert McLeod's 1874 gauge measured low vacuum pressures by compression.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/McLeod_gauge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2426506"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_mcleod_gauge_2426506"},{"id":"w_hygrometer_183173","name":"Hygrometer","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the atmosphere. 1887 — Richard Assmann invents the psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers)","verdict":"Advance: Richard Assmann's 1887 aspirated psychrometer improved humidity measurement.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hygrometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183173"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_hygrometer_183173"},{"id":"w_pirani_gauge_1568325","name":"Pirani gauge","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Thermal conductivity gauge. 1906 — Marcello Pirani – Pirani gauge (to measure pressures in vacuum systems)","verdict":"Advance: Marcello Pirani's 1906 gauge measures vacuum pressure by thermal conduction.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pirani_gauge","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1568325"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_pirani_gauge_1568325"},{"id":"w_chart_recorder_1924391","name":"Chart recorder","year":1915,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Monitor and document variables like temperature, pressure, or humidity, providing a continuous visual record to ensure conditions meet specifications.. 1915 — J.C. Stevens — Chart recorder (first chart recorder for environmental monitoring)","verdict":"Advance: Chart recorders (1915) logged variables continuously for industry and science.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chart_recorder","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1924391"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_chart_recorder_1924391"},{"id":"w_langmuir_probe_903002","name":"Langmuir probe","year":1924,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Device used to measure plasma. 1924 — Irving Langmuir — Langmuir probe (to measure plasma parameters)","verdict":"Advance: Irving Langmuir's 1924 probe measured plasma properties, used in fusion research.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Langmuir_probe","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q903002"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_langmuir_probe_903002"},{"id":"w_combustion_133235","name":"Combustion","year":1667,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"High-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. 1667 – J. J. Becher puts forward a theory of combustion involving combustible earth in his book Physica subterranea (see Phlogiston theory ).","verdict":"Advance: Hooke and Mayow's 1660s experiments linked burning to part of the air, a step toward Lavoisier's oxygen.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Combustion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133235"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_combustion_133235"},{"id":"w_vis_viva_286092","name":"Vis viva","year":1676,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Physical quantity, historically invented by G. Leibniz, equivalent to (in modern terminology) twice the kinetic energy. 1676–1689 – Gottfried Leibniz develops the concept of vis viva, a limited version of the conservation of energy","verdict":"Advance: Leibniz's vis viva (mv²) anticipated kinetic energy and its conservation.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vis_viva","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q286092"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vis_viva_286092"},{"id":"w_steam_digester_898823","name":"Steam digester","year":1679,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"High-pressure cooker invented by Denis Papin in 1679 to allow paupers to consume bones and low-quality meat. 1679 – Denis Papin designed a steam digester which inspired the development of the piston-and-cylinder steam engine.","verdict":"Advance: Papin's steam digester rendered bones into edible gelatine for the poor, showing pressurized steam as a working tool.","dependencies":["w_pressure_cooker_271997"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Steam_digester","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898823"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_steam_digester_898823"},{"id":"w_heat_transfer_179635","name":"Heat transfer","year":1777,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Transport of thermal energy in physical systems. 1777 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguishes heat transfer by thermal radiation from that by convection and conduction","verdict":"Advance: Carl Scheele distinguished heat radiation from conduction in 1777, laying groundwork for heat-transfer theory.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_transfer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179635"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heat_transfer_179635"},{"id":"w_vapor_pressure_2661322","name":"Vapor pressure","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Pressure exterted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium. 1849 – William John Macquorn Rankine calculates the correct relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature using his hypothesis of molecular vortices","verdict":"Advance: Rankine and Regnault's vapour-pressure measurements (1849) improved steam-engine design.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vapor_pressure","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2661322"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vapor_pressure_2661322"},{"id":"w_clausius_theorem_2428364","name":"Clausius theorem","year":1854,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem that for a thermodynamic system undergoing a thermodynamic cycle, the following inequality holds: ∮ δ𝑄/𝑇 ≤ 0, where δ𝑄 is heat absorbed by the system and 𝑇 is the temperature. 1854 – Clausius establishes the importance of dQ/T ( Clausius's theorem ), but does not yet name the quantity","verdict":"Advance: Clausius's 1854 inequality set the limit on heat engine cycles and led to entropy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Clausius_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2428364"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_clausius_theorem_2428364"},{"id":"w_macroscopic_scale_674038","name":"Macroscopic scale","year":1865,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Length scale on which objects or phenomena are large enough to be visible almost practically with the naked eye. 1865 – Clausius introduces the modern macroscopic concept of entropy","verdict":"Advance: The distinction between macroscopic and microscopic scales framed thermodynamics and statistical physics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Macroscopic_scale","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q674038"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_macroscopic_scale_674038"},{"id":"w_virial_theorem_620602","name":"Virial theorem","year":1870,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"General equation that relates the time-averaged total kinetic energy of a stable system consisting of N particles, bound by potential forces, with that of the time-averaged total potential energy. 1870 – Clausius proves the scalar virial theorem","verdict":"Advance: Clausius's 1870 virial theorem relates kinetic and potential energy, used by Zwicky to infer dark matter.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Virial_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620602"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_virial_theorem_620602"},{"id":"w_equation_of_state_214967","name":"Equation of state","year":1873,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Equation describing the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. 1873 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals formulates his equation of state","verdict":"Advance: His 1873 equation of state described real gases and phase transitions, earning van der Waals the 1910 Nobel.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Equation_of_state","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214967"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_equation_of_state_214967"},{"id":"w_second_law_of_thermodynamics_177045","name":"Second law of thermodynamics","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Law of physics stating that systems spontaneously evolve towards states of higher entropy. 1874 – Thomson formally states the second law of thermodynamics","verdict":"Advance: Kelvin and Clausius's second law (1850s) says entropy rises, limiting engine efficiency.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Second_law_of_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177045"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1824)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_second_law_of_thermodynamics_177045"},{"id":"w_loschmidt_s_paradox_3895095","name":"Loschmidt's paradox","year":1876,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"In physics, the apparent contradiction that time-irreversible macrophysics arises from time-symmetric microphysics. 1876 – Loschmidt criticises Boltzmann's H theorem as being incompatible with microscopic reversibility ( Loschmidt's paradox ).","verdict":"Advance: Loschmidt's 1876 paradox asked how irreversible processes arise from reversible laws, still debated.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Loschmidt's_paradox","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3895095"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_loschmidt_s_paradox_3895095"},{"id":"w_le_chatelier_s_principle_192690","name":"Le Chatelier's principle","year":1888,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Principle 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Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical law in electrochemistry. 1889 – Walther Nernst relates the voltage of electrochemical cells to their chemical thermodynamics via the Nernst equation","verdict":"Advance: Walther Nernst's 1889 equation gives electrode potentials, used in batteries and neuroscience.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nernst_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751124"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_nernst_equation_751124"},{"id":"w_activation_energy_190474","name":"Activation energy","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & 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Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Physical law that describes the amount of spectral radiance at a certain wavelength radiated by a black body cavity in thermal equilibrium. 1900 – Max Planck suggests that light may be emitted in discrete frequencies, giving his law of black-body radiation","verdict":"Advance: Planck's 1900 radiation law matched black-body spectra and introduced Planck's constant.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Planck's_law","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212986"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_planck_s_law_212986"},{"id":"w_annus_mirabilis_papers_51497","name":"Annus Mirabilis 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capacity","year":1907,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thermal property describing the energy required to change a material's temperature. 1907 – Einstein uses quantum theory to estimate the heat capacity of an Einstein solid","verdict":"Advance: Einstein's 1907 quantum theory of heat capacity explained low-temperature behaviour of solids.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heat_capacity","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179388"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_heat_capacity_179388"},{"id":"w_axiomatic_system_792542","name":"Axiomatic system","year":1909,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to logically derive theorems. 1909 – Constantin Carathéodory develops an axiomatic system of thermodynamics","verdict":"Advance: Formal axiomatic method.","dependencies":["w_formal_system_649732"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Axiomatic_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q792542"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_axiomatic_system_792542"},{"id":"w_debye_model_1151031","name":"Debye model","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Mathematical model of a solid that treates the vibrations of the atomic lattice as phonons in a box. 1912 – Peter Debye gives an improved heat capacity estimate by allowing low-frequency phonons","verdict":"Advance: Peter Debye's 1912 model explained heat capacity of solids at low temperature.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Debye_model","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1151031"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_debye_model_1151031"},{"id":"w_electrolyte_162908","name":"Electrolyte","year":1923,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Medium which conducts ions but not electrons. 1923 – Debye and Erich Hückel publish a statistical treatment of the dissociation of electrolytes","verdict":"Advance: Debye and Hückel's 1923 theory explained electrolyte solutions, essential to batteries.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electrolyte","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162908"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_electrolyte_162908"},{"id":"w_density_matrix_831774","name":"Density matrix","year":1927,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Matrix describing a quantum system in a pure or mixed state, a statistical mixture of quantum states. 1927 – John von Neumann introduces the density matrix representation, establishing quantum statistical mechanics","verdict":"Advance: Landau and von Neumann's 1927 density matrix describes mixed quantum states and is essential in quantum computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Density_matrix","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831774"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_density_matrix_831774"},{"id":"w_johnson_nyquist_noise_1337490","name":"Johnson–Nyquist 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Johnson discovers Johnson noise in a resistor","verdict":"Advance: John B. Johnson's 1928 thermal noise sets the floor for every amplifier and radio receiver.","dependencies":["w_noise_179448"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1337490"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_johnson_nyquist_noise_1337490"},{"id":"w_fluctuation_dissipation_theorem_1434158","name":"Fluctuation-dissipation theorem","year":1928,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Theorem. 1928 – Harry Nyquist derives the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, a relationship to explain Johnson noise in a resistor","verdict":"Advance: Nyquist's 1928 derivation linked noise to resistance, generalized by Callen and Welton in 1951.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluctuation%E2%80%93dissipation_theorem","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1434158"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fluctuation_dissipation_theorem_1434158"},{"id":"w_onsager_reciprocal_relations_901483","name":"Onsager reciprocal relations","year":1931,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Equality of certain ratios between flows and forces in thermodynamic systems out of equilibrium. 1931 – Lars Onsager publishes his groundbreaking paper deriving the Onsager reciprocal relations","verdict":"Advance: Onsager's 1931 reciprocal relations, earning the 1968 Nobel, describe coupled heat and mass flows.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Onsager_reciprocal_relations","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901483"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_onsager_reciprocal_relations_901483"},{"id":"w_zeroth_law_of_thermodynamics_190983","name":"Zeroth law of thermodynamics","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Principle stating if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with another, they are with each other. 1935 – Ralph H. Fowler invents the title ' the zeroth law of thermodynamics ' to summarise postulates made by earlier physicists that thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation","verdict":"Advance: Ralph Fowler's 1935 zeroth law defined thermal equilibrium, making temperature consistent.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zeroth_law_of_thermodynamics","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190983"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_zeroth_law_of_thermodynamics_190983"},{"id":"w_vlasov_equation_2323892","name":"Vlasov equation","year":1938,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Partial differential equation describing the time evolution of plasma. 1938 – Anatoly Vlasov proposes the Vlasov equation for a correct dynamical description of ensembles of particles with collective long range interaction","verdict":"Advance: Anatoly Vlasov's 1938 equation describes collisionless plasma, used in fusion and astrophysics.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Vlasov_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2323892"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_vlasov_equation_2323892"},{"id":"w_gauss_markov_process_5527857","name":"Gauss–Markov process","year":1942,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stochastic processes. 1942 – Joseph L. Doob states his theorem on Gauss–Markov processes","verdict":"Advance: Joseph Doob's 1942 Gauss–Markov processes modelled random motion, used in tracking and finance.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gauss%E2%80%93Markov_process","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5527857"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_gauss_markov_process_5527857"},{"id":"w_bbgky_hierarchy_653679","name":"BBGKY hierarchy","year":1945,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Set of equations describing the dynamics of a system of many interacting particles. 1945–1946 – Nikolay Bogoliubov develops a general method for a microscopic derivation of kinetic equations for classical statistical systems using BBGKY hierarchy","verdict":"Advance: Bogoliubov, Born, Green, Kirkwood and Yvon's 1946 hierarchy derived kinetic equations from many-particle dynamics.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/BBGKY_hierarchy","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653679"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_bbgky_hierarchy_653679"},{"id":"w_fokker_planck_equation_891766","name":"Fokker–Planck equation","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Partial differential equation. 1957 – Aleksandr Solomonovich Kompaneets derives his Compton scattering Fokker–Planck equation","verdict":"Advance: Kompaneets's 1957 equation describes photon scattering, used for the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fokker%E2%80%93Planck_equation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q891766"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_fokker_planck_equation_891766"},{"id":"w_green_kubo_relations_4390265","name":"Green–Kubo relations","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Equation relating transport coefficients to correlation functions. 1957 – Ryogo Kubo derives the first of the Green-Kubo relations for linear transport coefficients","verdict":"Advance: Green and Kubo's 1950s relations compute transport properties from fluctuations.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Green%E2%80%93Kubo_relations","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4390265"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_green_kubo_relations_4390265"},{"id":"w_dissipative_system_596577","name":"Dissipative system","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thermodynamically open system which is operating out of, and often far from, thermodynamic equilibrium in an environment with which it exchanges energy and matter. 1977 – Ilya Prigogine wins the Nobel prize for his work on dissipative structures in thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium. The importation and dissipation of energy could reverse the 2nd law of thermodynamics","verdict":"Advance: Ilya Prigogine's dissipative structures earned the 1977 Nobel and explain self-organization.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dissipative_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_thermodynamics","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q596577"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#w_dissipative_system_596577"},{"id":"w_submarine_2811","name":"Submarine","year":1620,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":5,"summary":"Watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. 1620 – Cornelius Drebbel builds the world's first known submarine, which is propelled by oars (although there are earlier ideas for and depictions of submarines).","verdict":"Compete: Cornelis Drebbel's oared leather-covered boat dove under the Thames about 1620, the first navigable submarine, centuries before practical ones.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Submarine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2811"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_submarine_2811"},{"id":"w_bus_5638","name":"Bus","year":1662,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Large road vehicle for transporting people. 1662 – Blaise Pascal invents a horse-drawn public bus which has a regular route, schedule, and fare system.","verdict":"Advance: Pascal's 1662 Paris carrosses à cinq sols ran on fixed routes and timetables, the world's first public bus service.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5638"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bus_5638"},{"id":"w_model_car_1335161","name":"Model car","year":1672,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Scale model of car. 1672 – Ferdinand Verbiest built what may have been the first steam-powered scale model car.","verdict":"Advance: Ferdinand Verbiest's steam toy for the Kangxi Emperor (c. 1672) may have been the first self-propelled vehicle, a model car built 100 years before Cugnot's (claimed).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Model_car","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335161"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_model_car_1335161"},{"id":"w_differential_193137","name":"Differential","year":1720,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of simple planetary gear train. 1720 - Differential gear invented by Joseph Williamson.","verdict":"Advance: Differential gearing, attributed to Joseph Williamson for equation clocks (claimed earlier in China's south-pointing chariot), lets car wheels turn at different speeds through corners.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Differential_(mechanical_device)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193137"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#w_differential_193137"},{"id":"w_stroller_507141","name":"Stroller","year":1733,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Wheeled baby transport. 1733 - William Kent developed an early stroller.","verdict":"Advance: William Kent's 1733 goat-drawn carriage for the Duke of Devonshire began the baby stroller, which freed parents' hands.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stroller","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q507141"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_stroller_507141"},{"id":"w_inline_skates_616765","name":"Inline skates","year":1760,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Boots with wheels arranged in a single line. 1760s - Inline skates invented.","verdict":"Advance: Merlin's 1760 inline wheels, revived by Rollerblade in the 1980s, gave skaters an off-season ice-skating equivalent.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Inline_skates","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q616765"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_inline_skates_616765"},{"id":"w_marine_chronometer_2307829","name":"Marine chronometer","year":1761,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Portable timepiece. 1761 - Marine chronometer invented as a means to accurately determine longitude.","verdict":"Advance: John Harrison's H4 (1761) kept time at sea to within seconds, solving longitude and making ocean navigation safe.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Marine_chronometer","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2307829"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1736)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_marine_chronometer_2307829"},{"id":"w_turtle_758540","name":"Turtle","year":1776,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"First combat submersible; United States, 1775. 1776 – First submarine to be propelled by screws, and the first military submarine to attempt an attack on a ship, Turtle, is built by David Bushnell. The attack fails to sink HMS Eagle.","verdict":"Compete: David Bushnell's hand-cranked Turtle tried to attach a mine to HMS Eagle in 1776, the first submarine attack, though it failed.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Turtle_(submersible)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q758540"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_turtle_758540"},{"id":"w_tricycle_536135","name":"Tricycle","year":1789,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Three-wheeled self-powered vehicle. 1789 - The pedal powered tricycle was invented by two Frenchmen, named Blanchard and Maguier.","verdict":"Advance: Blanchard and Magurier's 1789 pedal tricycle offered stable, human-powered transport, now essential to cargo bikes and the disabled.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tricycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q536135"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_tricycle_536135"},{"id":"w_charlotte_dundas_461588","name":"Charlotte Dundas","year":1803,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Towing steamboat, second successful steamboat. 1803 – William Symington 's Charlotte Dundas, generally considered to be the world's first practical steamboat, makes her first voyage.","verdict":"Advance: William Symington's Charlotte Dundas towed barges on the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1803, the first practical steam tug.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Dundas","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461588"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_charlotte_dundas_461588"},{"id":"w_amphibious_vehicle_474698","name":"Amphibious vehicle","year":1804,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Means of transport, viable on land as well as on (or under) water. 1804 – Oliver Evans (claimed to have) demonstrated a steam-powered amphibious vehicle.","verdict":"Advance: Evans' steam-powered amphibious dredger; a curiosity that later found military use.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Amphibious_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q474698"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_amphibious_vehicle_474698"},{"id":"w_horsecar_832003","name":"Horsecar","year":1807,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Animal-powered tram or streetcar. 1807 - The Swansea and Mumbles Railway ran the world's first passenger horsecar tram service.","verdict":"Advance: The Swansea and Mumbles Railway (1807) carried the world's first fare-paying rail passengers, by horse.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Horsecar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q832003"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_horsecar_832003"},{"id":"w_north_river_steamboat_1785439","name":"North River Steamboat","year":1807,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1807 passenger steamboat by Robert Fulton, first steamship in regular service. 1807 – Robert Fulton 's North River Steamboat, the world's first commercially successful steamboat, makes her maiden voyage.","verdict":"Advance: Robert Fulton's 1807 North River Steamboat made the Hudson run in 32 hours, the first commercially successful steamboat.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/North_River_Steamboat","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1785439"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_north_river_steamboat_1785439"},{"id":"w_guided_bus_836547","name":"Guided bus","year":1809,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Bus that is capable of running in a guideway (guided optically, magnetically or by a central rail). 1809 - First stone laid of first ' guided bus ' passenger wagonway Gloucester and Cheltenham Tramroad.","verdict":"Advance: Guided buses, from 1809 trackway experiments to Adelaide's O-Bahn (1986), combine bus flexibility with rail-like speed.","dependencies":["w_bus_5638"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Guided_bus","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836547"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_guided_bus_836547"},{"id":"w_salamanca_3032225","name":"Salamanca","year":1812,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early British steam locomotive (built 1812). 1812 – First commercially successful self-propelled engine on land was Matthew Murray 's Salamanca on Middleton Railway using toothed wheels and rail.","verdict":"Advance: Matthew Murray's Salamanca (1812) ran on a rack railway at Leeds, the first commercially successful steam locomotive.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Salamanca_(locomotive)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3032225"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_salamanca_3032225"},{"id":"w_puffing_billy_735464","name":"Puffing Billy","year":1812,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Preserved early British steam locomotive. 1812 – Timothy Hackworth 's \" Puffing Billy \" ran on smooth Cast Iron Rails at Wylam Colliery near Newcastle","verdict":"Advance: William Hedley's Puffing Billy (1813) proved smooth wheels could grip rails, the oldest surviving locomotive.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Puffing_Billy_(locomotive)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735464"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_puffing_billy_735464"},{"id":"w_ss_savannah_1264583","name":"SS Savannah","year":1819,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"American hybrid sailing ship/sidewheel steamer built in 1818. 1819 – SS Savannah, the first vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean partly under steam power, arrives at Liverpool, England from Savannah, Georgia.","verdict":"Advance: SS Savannah crossed the Atlantic in 1819 with auxiliary steam paddles, the first steam-assisted ocean crossing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SS_Savannah","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1264583"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ss_savannah_1264583"},{"id":"w_kick_scooter_502057","name":"Kick scooter","year":1819,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Human-powered land vehicle without saddle. 1819 - Denis Johnson invents kick scooter.","verdict":"Advance: Kick scooters, recorded from 1817 and later rehabilitated with lithium motors, remain cheap urban transport.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kick_scooter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q502057"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kick_scooter_502057"},{"id":"w_suspension_railway_339401","name":"Suspension railway","year":1825,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Form of elevated railway where the vehicle is suspended from a fixed track. 1825 - The first suspension railway was opened at Cheshunt, England, United Kingdom on 25 June.","verdict":"Advance: Henry Palmer's 1825 monorail at Cheshunt carried bricks on a suspended rail, an idea realized in Wuppertal's 1901 railway.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Suspension_railway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_suspension_railway_339401"},{"id":"w_stephenson_s_rocket_777026","name":"Stephenson's Rocket","year":1829,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Early steam locomotive. 1829 – Rainhill Trials to find best self-propelled engine for Liverpool Manchester line are won by Robert Stephenson's Rocket proving there is no need for horse traction or static engines on the main line.","verdict":"Advance: Stephenson's 1829 Rocket, with a multi-tube boiler and blast pipe, won Rainhill and set the template for steam locomotives.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Stephenson's_Rocket","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q777026"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_stephenson_s_rocket_777026"},{"id":"w_mail_coach_912357","name":"Mail coach","year":1830,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stagecoach that is used to deliver mail. 1830 – Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens.","verdict":"Advance: Royal Mail coaches (from 1784) carried mail on timed schedules, then gave way to railways after 1830.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mail_coach","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912357"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_mail_coach_912357"},{"id":"w_electric_locomotive_625151","name":"Electric locomotive","year":1837,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Locomotive powered by electricity. 1837 - The first electric locomotive built in 1837 was a battery locomotive. It was built by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen in Scotland, and it was powered by galvanic cells (batteries).","verdict":"Advance: Robert Davidson's 1837 battery locomotive was the first electric locomotive, ancestor of today's high-speed trains.","dependencies":["locomotive"],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electric_locomotive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q625151"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_electric_locomotive_625151"},{"id":"w_ss_great_western_946641","name":"SS Great Western","year":1838,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Oak-hulled paddle-wheel steamship. 1838 – Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's SS Great Western, the first purpose-built transatlantic steamship, inaugurates the first regular transatlantic steamship service.","verdict":"Advance: Brunel's SS Great Western (1838) offered regular transatlantic steam service, shrinking the crossing to 15 days.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SS_Great_Western","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q946641"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ss_great_western_946641"},{"id":"w_railway_mania_3072191","name":"Railway Mania","year":1840,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"dissipate","impact":3,"summary":"Speculative frenzy in the UK in the 1840s about railways. 1840s – Railway Mania sweeps UK and Ireland. 6,220 miles (10,010 km) of railway line were built","verdict":"Drift: A speculative railway bubble; capital misallocated, though track got built.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Railway_Mania","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3072191"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#w_railway_mania_3072191"},{"id":"w_railcar_752392","name":"Railcar","year":1847,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Self-propelled railway vehicle designed to transport passengers or luggage. 1847 - The first steam railcar was designed by James Samuel, the Eastern Counties Railway Locomotive Engineer, built by William Bridges Adams in 1847, and trialled between Shoreditch and Cambridge on 23 October 1847.","verdict":"Advance: William Bridges Adams' steam railcars (1847) carried passengers economically on branch lines, the basis of diesel railcars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Railcar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752392"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_railcar_752392"},{"id":"w_glider_2165278","name":"Glider","year":1849,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Unpowered fixed-wing aircraft. 1849 - Sir George Cayley 's gliders achieved brief wing-borne hops from around 1849.","verdict":"Advance: George Cayley's 1849–53 gliders carried a boy and his coachman, the first crewed heavier-than-air flights.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Glider_(aircraft)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2165278"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_glider_2165278"},{"id":"w_human_powered_quadricycle_1754713","name":"Human powered quadricycle","year":1850,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Human powered four-wheeled land vehicle. - Quadracycle invented.","verdict":"Advance: Four-wheeled human-powered vehicles offered stability for cargo and recreation, ancestors of quadricycles and pedal cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quadracycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1754713"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_human_powered_quadricycle_1754713"},{"id":"w_railway_air_brake_1196198","name":"Railway air brake","year":1868,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fail-safe power braking system with compressed air as the operating medium. 1868 – George Westinghouse invented the compressed-air brake for railway trains.","verdict":"Advance: George Westinghouse's 1869 fail-safe air brake stopped whole trains at once, cutting rail accidents dramatically.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Railway_air_brake","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1196198"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_railway_air_brake_1196198"},{"id":"w_michaux_perreaux_steam_velocipede_1715277","name":"Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede","year":1868,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Steam powered velocipede. 1868 – Louis-Guillaume Perreaux 's steam velocipede, a steam engine attached to a Michaux velocipede.","verdict":"Advance: Perreaux's 1868 steam engine on a Michaux velocipede was the first motorcycle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Michaux-Perreaux_steam_velocipede","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1715277"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_michaux_perreaux_steam_velocipede_1715277"},{"id":"w_kicksled_1538190","name":"Kicksled","year":1870,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Small sled consisting of a chair mounted on a pair of flexible metal runners that extend backward to about twice the chair's length. 1870 - First definite record of a kicksled.","verdict":"Advance: Scandinavian kicksleds (1870s) let people glide over icy roads, still used for winter transport.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kicksled","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1538190"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_kicksled_1538190"},{"id":"w_bogie_217421","name":"Bogie","year":1874,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Framework which carries a wheelset and is attached to a rail vehicle. 1874 - Midland railway introduces the first bogie.","verdict":"Advance: Pivoting bogies let long rail cars round curves smoothly, standard on nearly every train since the Midland Railway in 1874.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bogie","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217421"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bogie_217421"},{"id":"w_battery_electric_multiple_unit_902403","name":"Battery electric multiple unit","year":1887,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Self propelled railway vehicle using electricity from onboard storage batteries. 1887 - The first Battery electric multiple unit (battery rail car) was used on the Royal Bavarian State Railways.","verdict":"Advance: Battery railcars (1887) ran without wires, a concept revived for non-electrified lines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Battery_electric_multiple_unit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902403"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_battery_electric_multiple_unit_902403"},{"id":"w_interurban_1664428","name":"Interurban","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of electric railway. 1889 - The first interurban tram-train to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.","verdict":"Advance: Newark's 1889 interurban started electric intercity rail across the US Midwest, inspiring later light rail.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interurban","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1664428"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_interurban_1664428"},{"id":"w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882","name":"Battery electric vehicle","year":1889,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Vehicle using only rechargeable electric batteries as energy source. 1889 - First introduced in 1889, battery vehicles milk floats expanded use in 1931 and by 1967 gave Britain the largest electric vehicle fleet in the world.","verdict":"Advance: Early battery cars (1889) briefly outsold petrol cars in New York but lost to cheaper Model Ts; they returned with lithium.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Battery_electric_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1076882"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882"},{"id":"w_recumbent_bicycle_750483","name":"Recumbent bicycle","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of bicycle. 1893 - Recumbent bicycles invented.","verdict":"Advance: Recumbents set human-powered speed records, though racing bodies banned them from competition in 1934.","dependencies":["w_bicycle_11442"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Recumbent_bicycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q750483"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_recumbent_bicycle_750483"},{"id":"w_moving_walkway_847580","name":"Moving walkway","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Roughly horizontal conveyor for pedestrians. 1893 - first moving walkway debuted at the World's Columbian Exposition.","verdict":"Advance: The 1893 Chicago Expo moving walkway carried visitors along the pier, the template for airport travelators.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Moving_walkway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q847580"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_moving_walkway_847580"},{"id":"w_sidecar_1051405","name":"Sidecar","year":1893,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A one-wheeled device attached to the side of a motorcycle, scooter, or bicycle. 1893 - First sidecar.","verdict":"Advance: Sidecars (1893) carried a passenger beside a motorcycle, a cheap family vehicle before cars.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sidecar","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1051405"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sidecar_1051405"},{"id":"w_monorail_187934","name":"Monorail","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Single-rail based transportation system. 1896 - First battery powered monorail, Ontario Southern Railway (Ontario).","verdict":"Advance: Early electric monorails (1896) evolved into elevated airport and city systems.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Monorail","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187934"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_monorail_187934"},{"id":"w_electric_bicycle_924724","name":"Electric bicycle","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Bicycle with an integrated electric motor. 1897 – Most likely the first electric bicycle was built in 1897 by Hosea W. Libbey.","verdict":"Advance: Ogden Bolton's 1895 hub-motor bicycle prefigured e-bikes, now outselling electric cars.","dependencies":["w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882","w_bicycle_11442"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-bike","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q924724"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_electric_bicycle_924724"},{"id":"w_four_wheel_drive_214833","name":"Four-wheel drive","year":1899,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of drivetrain with four driven wheels. 1899 - The Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid was both the world's first hybrid vehicle, and the first four-wheel drive without a steam engine.","verdict":"Advance: The Lohner-Porsche Mixte used four hub motors for all-wheel drive in 1900, a configuration later revived in electric vehicles.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Four-wheel_drive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214833"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_four_wheel_drive_214833"},{"id":"w_lz_1_1146890","name":"LZ 1","year":1900,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"1900 Zeppelin A Class airship; first successful rigid airship. 1900 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin launches the first successful airship.","verdict":"Advance: Zeppelin's LZ 1 flew over Lake Constance in July 1900, the first successful rigid airship.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zeppelin_LZ_1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1146890"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_lz_1_1146890"},{"id":"w_hydrofoil_657819","name":"Hydrofoil","year":1906,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Watercraft using hydrofoil technology. 1906 - Early hydrofoil used by Enrico Forlanini.","verdict":"Advance: Enrico Forlanini's 1906 hydrofoil lifted its hull out of the water for speed, a design used by ferries today.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrofoil","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q657819"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hydrofoil_657819"},{"id":"w_aerial_lift_13409250","name":"Aerial lift","year":1908,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Means of cable transport in which cabins, cars, gondolas or open chairs are hauled above the ground by means of one or more cables. 1908 - the Kohlerer-funicular went into service in Bolzano. It was the first modern (enclosed) cable car in the world to carry passengers.","verdict":"Advance: Ropeways move people over mountains and dense cities.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aerial_lift","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13409250"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_aerial_lift_13409250"},{"id":"w_fabre_hydravion_1390682","name":"Fabre Hydravion","year":1910,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Originally unnamed experimental floatplane designed by Henri Fabre. 1910 - Fabre Hydravion first seaplane.","verdict":"Advance: Henri Fabre's 1910 Hydravion took off from water, the first seaplane, extending aviation to coasts and lakes.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabre_Hydravion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1390682"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fabre_hydravion_1390682"},{"id":"w_diesel_locomotive_34336","name":"Diesel locomotive","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Railway locomotive which generates tractive power directly from a diesel engine. 1912 - The world's first diesel locomotive (a diesel-mechanical locomotive) was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland.","verdict":"Advance: Sulzer's 1912 diesel locomotive began replacing steam, cutting fuel and labour on railways.","dependencies":["locomotive"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diesel_locomotive","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34336"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_diesel_locomotive_34336"},{"id":"w_articulated_vehicle_1411533","name":"Articulated vehicle","year":1912,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vehicle which has a pivoting joint in its construction. 1912 - Articulated trams, invented and first used by the Boston Elevated Railway.","verdict":"Advance: Articulated trams and buses carry more people per vehicle.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Articulated_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1411533"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_articulated_vehicle_1411533"},{"id":"w_traffic_light_8004","name":"Traffic light","year":1914,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Signalling device to control competing flows of traffic. 1914 - The first application of railway electric traffic light signals was by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad 's use of the US&S \"Style L\" colour light signal on their line through the Pacific Northwest.","verdict":"Advance: Electric traffic lights, first installed in Cleveland in 1914, organized city intersections and cut collisions.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Traffic_light","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8004"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1868)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_traffic_light_8004"},{"id":"w_electric_kick_scooter_23504115","name":"Electric kick scooter","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Powered stand-up scooter. Motorized scooter invented.","verdict":"Advance: Battery scooters, early motorized from the 1910s and revived with lithium cells, now offer cheap last-mile city transport.","dependencies":["w_kick_scooter_502057","w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-scooter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23504115"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_electric_kick_scooter_23504115"},{"id":"w_hd_4_5629157","name":"HD-4","year":1919,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Early hydrofoil watercraft. 1919 - HD-4 first hydroplane launched by Alexander Graham Bell.","verdict":"Advance: Alexander Graham Bell's HD-4 hydrofoil set a 114 km/h water-speed record in 1919.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD-4","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5629157"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hd_4_5629157"},{"id":"w_linear_induction_motor_16928416","name":"Linear induction motor","year":1935,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of linear motor. Hermann Kemper built a working linear induction motor.","verdict":"Advance: Hermann Kemper's linear motor (1935) propelled maglev trains like the Transrapid and electromagnetic aircraft catapults.","dependencies":["w_induction_motor_207450"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Linear_induction_motor","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16928416"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_linear_induction_motor_16928416"},{"id":"w_heinkel_he_176_704025","name":"Heinkel He 176","year":1939,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Experimental rocket plane. 1939 - 20 June - First rocket powered aircraft, the Heinkel He 176, takes flight.","verdict":"Advance: The He 176 flew on 20 June 1939 on rocket power, the first liquid-rocket aircraft.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heinkel_He_176","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q704025"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heinkel_he_176_704025"},{"id":"w_traffic_cone_694547","name":"Traffic cone","year":1943,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Cone-shaped marker used for traffic management. 1943 - Traffic cone invented.","verdict":"Advance: Charles Scanlon's 1943 rubber traffic cone made temporary road work safer and became a universal symbol.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Traffic_cone","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q694547"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_traffic_cone_694547"},{"id":"w_x_1_223365","name":"X-1","year":1947,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1946 experimental aircraft model by Bell. 1947 – Chuck Yeager in the Bell X1 completes the first supersonic manned flight.","verdict":"Advance: Bell's X-1 proved controlled supersonic flight in 1947, and its all-moving tail made it possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bell_X-1","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q223365"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"wikidata-match","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_x_1_223365"},{"id":"w_heritage_railway_420962","name":"Heritage railway","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Railway used for heritage/historical/tourism purposes. 1950 – First Heritage railway.","verdict":"Advance: Volunteers saved Wales's Talyllyn Railway in 1951, starting the heritage railway movement.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Heritage_railway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420962"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_heritage_railway_420962"},{"id":"w_high_speed_craft_1617851","name":"High-speed craft","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"High speed water vessel for civilian use. Supramar launched the first commercial high-speed craft, a hydrofoil.","verdict":"Advance: Supramar's 1953 commercial hydrofoil ferries on Lake Maggiore began fast passenger ferry services.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-speed_craft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1617851"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_high_speed_craft_1617851"},{"id":"w_de_havilland_comet_26159","name":"De Havilland Comet","year":1952,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"1949 airliner family. de Havilland Comet first commercial jet air liner.","verdict":"Advance: The first jet airliner; its metal-fatigue crashes taught aviation how to build safe pressurized jets.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/De_Havilland_Comet","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26159"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_de_havilland_comet_26159"},{"id":"w_nuclear_marine_propulsion_1142489","name":"Nuclear marine propulsion","year":1955,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Propulsion system for marine vessels utilizing a nuclear powerplant. 1955 – First nuclear-powered vessel, USS Nautilus, a submarine, is launched.","verdict":"Advance: USS Nautilus (1955) proved nuclear marine propulsion, running submerged for weeks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_marine_propulsion","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1142489"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_nuclear_marine_propulsion_1142489"},{"id":"w_container_ship_17210","name":"Container ship","year":1956,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Type of cargo ship. Gateway City – World's first purpose-built container ship, enters service.","verdict":"Advance: Malcom McLean's Ideal X (1956) and Gateway City launched container shipping, cutting cargo costs by about 90%.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Container_ship","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17210"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_container_ship_17210"},{"id":"w_caspian_sea_monster_1411851","name":"Caspian Sea Monster","year":1966,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":3,"summary":"Soviet ground-effect aircraft. 1966 – Caspian Sea Monster ground effect vehicle introduced.","verdict":"Compete: The KM ekranoplan flew on ground effect at 500 km/h; impressive but impractical, it inspired Western spy-satellite speculation.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Caspian_Sea_Monster","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1411851"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#w_caspian_sea_monster_1411851"},{"id":"w_automatic_train_operation_787208","name":"Automatic train operation","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Operational safety enhancement device. 1967 – Automatic train operation introduced on London Underground.","verdict":"Advance: Automatic train operation on the London Underground.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automatic_train_operation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q787208"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_automatic_train_operation_787208"},{"id":"w_space_hopper_1652427","name":"Space hopper","year":1968,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Ball that the user sits on and while holding on to the ball's handles, bounces around.. 1968 – Space hopper invented.","verdict":"Advance: This Italian-born bouncing ball (patented 1968) turned a rubber bladder into cheap, active fun, plastics engineering in toy form.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_hopper","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1652427"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#w_space_hopper_1652427"},{"id":"w_boeing_747_179","name":"Boeing 747","year":1969,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Widebody airliner family (1968–2023). First flight of the Boeing 747 – First commercial widebody airliner.","verdict":"Advance: Boeing's 747 (1970 service) doubled seating capacity and cut fares, opening long-haul travel.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Boeing_747","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_boeing_747_179"},{"id":"w_space_race_1932","name":"Space race","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"compete","impact":4,"summary":"Competition to explore space between USA and USSR. NASA rocket technology, spurred on by the US/Russia Space Race – Makes the first crewed Moon landing a reality.","verdict":"Compete: US–Soviet rivalry that drove rockets, satellites and the Moon landing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_Race","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1932"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_space_race_1932"},{"id":"w_stadtbahnwagen_b_315137","name":"Stadtbahnwagen B","year":1973,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Articulated light rail car developed in Germany. 1973 – Stadtbahnwagen B hybrid tram developed.","verdict":"Advance: The Stadtbahnwagen B (1973) gave German cities a standard light-rail car able to run on streets and in tunnels.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadtbahnwagen_B","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q315137"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_stadtbahnwagen_b_315137"},{"id":"w_personal_rapid_transit_912996","name":"Personal rapid transit","year":1975,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Traffic concept. 1975 – Morgantown PRT, first Personal Rapid Transit system to be installed.","verdict":"Advance: Morgantown's 1975 PRT, still running, shuttles riders on demand in small pods.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Personal_rapid_transit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912996"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_personal_rapid_transit_912996"},{"id":"w_concorde_6505","name":"Concorde","year":1976,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"British-French supersonic airliner (1969–2003). 1976 – Concorde makes the world's first commercial passenger-carrying supersonic flight.","verdict":"Advance: Concorde (1976) carried passengers at Mach 2 for 27 years, a technical triumph without commercial success.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Concorde","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6505"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_concorde_6505"},{"id":"w_automated_guideway_transit_4826456","name":"Automated guideway transit","year":1950,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fully automated, driverless, grade-separated transit system in which vehicles are automatically guided along a guideway. The first fully Automated guideway transit driverless people mover train technology introduced on Port Island Line, Japan.","verdict":"Advance: Driverless guided transit.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Automated_guideway_transit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4826456"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_automated_guideway_transit_4826456"},{"id":"w_sinclair_c5_1429206","name":"Sinclair C5","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Battery electric vehicle. 1985 – Sinclair C5, the first mass-produced electric battery velomobile launched.","verdict":"Advance: Sinclair's C5 (1985) was a commercial flop, yet an early mass-market electric vehicle.","dependencies":["w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sinclair_C5","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1429206"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sinclair_c5_1429206"},{"id":"w_snakeboard_1440401","name":"Snakeboard","year":1989,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type of skateboard with separate footplates. 1989 – Snakeboard invented.","verdict":"Advance: James Fisher and Oliver Macleod Smith's 1989 snakeboard gave skaters twisting propulsion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Snakeboard","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1440401"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_snakeboard_1440401"},{"id":"w_adtranz_low_floor_tram_1456582","name":"ADtranz low floor tram","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"German low floor tram model. 1990 – ADtranz low floor tram world's first completely low floor tram introduced.","verdict":"Advance: Step-free trams opened transit to wheelchairs and strollers.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/ADtranz_low_floor_tram","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1456582"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_adtranz_low_floor_tram_1456582"},{"id":"w_folding_bicycle_1137570","name":"Folding bicycle","year":1998,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Bicycle designed to fold into a compact form. 1998 – Honda Raccoon Compo, first folding electric bicycle in Japan.","verdict":"Advance: Folding bikes like the Brompton and Honda's Raccoon combine cycling with transit for commuters.","dependencies":["w_bicycle_11442"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Folding_bicycle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137570"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_folding_bicycle_1137570"},{"id":"w_trikke_2074099","name":"Trikke","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Chain-less, pedal-less, personal vehicle with a three-wheel frame. 1999 – Trikke (wiggle scooter) invented.","verdict":"Advance: The Trikke (1999) used carving motion to propel a three-wheeled scooter without pedals.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trikke","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2074099"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_trikke_2074099"},{"id":"w_bus_rapid_transit_2878855","name":"Bus rapid transit","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Rapid transit operated with buses rather than rail vehicles. 2000 – TransMilenio, first modern bus rapid transit.","verdict":"Advance: Bogotá's TransMilenio (2000) showed bus rapid transit could move metro-level volumes cheaply.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bus_rapid_transit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878855"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bus_rapid_transit_2878855"},{"id":"w_segway_pt_214893","name":"Segway PT","year":2002,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Battery-powered electric vehicle. 2002 – Segway PT self-balancing personal transport was launched by inventor Dean Kamen.","verdict":"Advance: Dean Kamen's 2001 Segway gyro-balanced scooter flopped commercially but led to self-balancing devices.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Segway","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214893"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_segway_pt_214893"},{"id":"w_ground_level_power_supply_2312102","name":"Ground-level power supply","year":2003,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Alternative method of third rail electrical pick-up for street trams. 2003 - First modern Ground-level power supply technology, Bordeaux tramway.","verdict":"Advance: Alstom's buried power rail at Bordeaux (2003) let trams run without overhead wires through the historic city.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ground-level_power_supply","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2312102"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#w_ground_level_power_supply_2312102"},{"id":"w_metrocable_3307447","name":"Metrocable","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"First urban transit cablecar. 2004 - First modern urban transit aerial cable car Metrocable (Medellín).","verdict":"Advance: Medellín's 2004 Metrocable linked hillside barrios to the metro, cutting commutes and crime.","dependencies":[],"region":"latin_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metrocable_(Medell%C3%ADn)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3307447"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_metrocable_3307447"},{"id":"w_koda_15_t_391888","name":"Škoda 15 T","year":2009,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Czech tram. 2009 - Škoda 15 T world's first completely low-floor tram with articulated bogies introduced.","verdict":"Advance: Škoda's 15 T (2009) had a fully low floor with pivoting bogies, improving ride and accessibility.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0koda_15_T","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q391888"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_koda_15_t_391888"},{"id":"w_mobile_app_620615","name":"Mobile app","year":2010,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Software application designed to run on mobile devices.","verdict":"Advance: Mobile apps, through Apple's App Store (2008) and Google Play, created a market worth more than $500 billion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mobile_app","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620615"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mobile_app_620615"},{"id":"w_self_balancing_scooter_21161871","name":"Self-balancing scooter","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Battery-powered electric vehicle. 2013 - Self-balancing scooter invented.","verdict":"Advance: Self-balancing hoverboards (2013) became popular despite early battery-fire recalls.","dependencies":["w_battery_electric_vehicle_1076882"],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-balancing_scooter","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21161871"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_self_balancing_scooter_21161871"},{"id":"w_fuel_cell_vehicle_909558","name":"Fuel cell vehicle","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vehicle that uses a fuel cell to power its electric motor. 2015 - In March, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.","verdict":"Advance: Fuel-cell vehicles, including CSR's 2015 hydrogen tram, offer long range and fast refuelling with only water exhaust.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuel_cell_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q909558"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fuel_cell_vehicle_909558"},{"id":"w_potsdam_tramway_481551","name":"Potsdam Tramway","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Tram system in Germany. 2018 - First driverless trams in Potsdam, Germany tested.","verdict":"Advance: Potsdam tested the first driverless tram in 2018, an early step toward automated city rail.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams_in_Potsdam","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q481551"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_potsdam_tramway_481551"},{"id":"w_ionocraft_1145895","name":"Ionocraft","year":2018,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Aircraft. 2018 - First electroaerodynamic thrust winged Ion-propelled aircraft test flight of MIT EAD Airframe Version 2 using ionic wind.","verdict":"Advance: MIT's 2018 ion-drive plane flew with no moving parts, a new form of propulsion.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ion-propelled_aircraft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1145895"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_ionocraft_1145895"},{"id":"w_autonomous_rail_rapid_transit_34370857","name":"Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Railless guided bus system. 2019 - The Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit opens in China.","verdict":"Advance: China's trackless guided rail.","dependencies":["w_bus_rapid_transit_2878855","w_guided_bus_836547"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Rapid_Transit","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34370857"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_autonomous_rail_rapid_transit_34370857"},{"id":"w_hydrogen_powered_aircraft_452617","name":"Hydrogen-powered aircraft","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"Type of airplane. 2020 – First commercial flight of a hydrogen fuel cell plane.","verdict":"Advance: ZeroAvia's 2020 hydrogen fuel cell flight showed zero-emission aviation was possible.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q452617"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_hydrogen_powered_aircraft_452617"},{"id":"w_bicycle_sharing_system_1358919","name":"Bicycle-sharing system","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System enabling communal bicycles to be shared, often in an urban setting. 2020 – Google Maps begins including bike shares in its widely used route planning functionality.","verdict":"Advance: Dock-based bike sharing, from Paris's Vélib' (2007) to app-based systems, made cycling easy for city trips.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bicycle-sharing_system","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1358919"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_bicycle_sharing_system_1358919"},{"id":"w_maglev_160047","name":"Maglev","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"System of train transportation that uses two sets of magnets. 2023 – The first test-runs of a superconducting maglev test line, called a hyperloop, are carried out in Datong, China (50 km/h of ~1,000 km/h).","verdict":"Advance: Birmingham's 1984 maglev was the first commercial maglev; Shanghai's 2004 line runs at 431 km/h.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Maglev","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160047"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_maglev_160047"},{"id":"w_sleeping_car_830565","name":"Sleeping car","year":1857,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Railway passenger wagon with private sleeping berths. 2023 – A comeback of sleeping trains in Europe is reported as demand for more comfortable travel modes than overnight buses and sustainable transport rises. A new generation of such trains is released.","verdict":"Advance: George Pullman's 1864 sleeping cars made overnight rail travel comfortable; night trains are returning in Europe since 2020.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Sleeping_car","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830565"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_sleeping_car_830565"},{"id":"w_fuxing_22100858","name":"Fuxing","year":2020,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Series of electric multiple unit high-speed trains operated by China Railway Corporation. 2020 - CR400BF-C ' Fuxing Hao ', a variant of CR400 Fuxing series, running on Beijing–Zhangjiakou intercity railway is the world first high-speed rail service capable of driverless automation in commercial operations.","verdict":"Advance: China's Fuxing trains (2017) run at 350 km/h on the world's largest high-speed rail network.","dependencies":[],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fuxing_(train)","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22100858"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_fuxing_22100858"},{"id":"w_unmanned_surface_vehicle_4419860","name":"Unmanned surface vehicle","year":2021,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vehicle that operates on the surface of the water without a crew and is remotely operated. 2021 – The world's first urban autonomous vessels, Roboats, are deployed in the canals of Amsterdam, Netherlands.","verdict":"Advance: Uncrewed surface vessels like the Mayflower Autonomous Ship (2022) survey and patrol oceans without crews.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Unmanned_surface_vehicle","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_transportation_technology","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4419860"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#w_unmanned_surface_vehicle_4419860"},{"id":"w_anthrax_vaccine_4007170","name":"Anthrax vaccine","year":1881,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine. 1881 - First vaccine for anthrax by Louis Pasteur","verdict":"Advance: Pasteur's anthrax vaccine proved attenuated vaccines work.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Anthrax_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4007170"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_anthrax_vaccine_4007170"},{"id":"w_cholera_vaccine_1812946","name":"Cholera vaccine","year":1884,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine that is effective at preventing cholera. 1884-1885 – First vaccine for cholera by Jaime Ferran y Clua","verdict":"Advance: Jaime Ferrán's 1885 live cholera vaccine was the first against a bacterial disease of humans, given to 30,000 Spaniards during an epidemic.","dependencies":[],"region":"russia","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cholera_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1812946"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_cholera_vaccine_1812946"},{"id":"w_tetanus_vaccine_5861101","name":"Tetanus vaccine","year":1890,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccines used to prevent tetanus. 1890 – First vaccine for tetanus (serum antitoxin) by Emil von Behring","verdict":"Advance: Behring and Kitasato's 1890 antitoxin serum blocked tetanus, and the 1924 toxoid vaccine all but eliminated it among soldiers in WWII.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tetanus_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5861101"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"source-timeline (Wikidata says 1939)","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tetanus_vaccine_5861101"},{"id":"w_typhoid_vaccine_7861081","name":"Typhoid vaccine","year":1896,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccines that prevent typhoid fever. 1896 – First vaccine for typhoid fever by Almroth Edward Wright, Richard Pfeiffer, and Wilhelm Kolle","verdict":"Advance: Almroth Wright's killed typhoid vaccine (1896) protected British troops and cut typhoid deaths sharply by WWI.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Typhoid_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7861081"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_typhoid_vaccine_7861081"},{"id":"w_plague_vaccine_4007173","name":"Plague vaccine","year":1897,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine used against Yersinia pestis. 1897 – First vaccine for bubonic plague by Waldemar Haffkine","verdict":"Advance: Waldemar Haffkine tested his plague vaccine on himself in Bombay (1897) before inoculating millions in India.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plague_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4007173"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_plague_vaccine_4007173"},{"id":"w_diphtheria_vaccine_4007175","name":"Diphtheria vaccine","year":1923,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine against Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the bacterium that causes diphtheria. 1923 – First vaccine for diphtheria by Gaston Ramon, Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō","verdict":"Advance: Gaston Ramon's 1923 diphtheria toxoid made a safe, durable vaccine, and diphtheria fell from a leading child killer to a rarity.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diphtheria_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4007175"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_diphtheria_vaccine_4007175"},{"id":"w_pertussis_vaccine_7170955","name":"Pertussis vaccine","year":1926,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine protecting against whooping cough. 1926 – First vaccine for pertussis (whooping cough) by Leila Denmark","verdict":"Advance: Pearl Kendrick and Grace Eldering's 1930s pertussis trials proved a whooping-cough vaccine; Madsen's 1926 version was an early one.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pertussis_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7170955"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pertussis_vaccine_7170955"},{"id":"w_tick_borne_encephalitis_vaccine_7800618","name":"Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine","year":1941,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Preventive medicine. 1941 – First vaccine for tick-borne encephalitis","verdict":"Advance: A killed-virus vaccine for tick-borne encephalitis, first made in the USSR and later refined in Austria, cut infections sharply in Central Europe.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Tick-borne_encephalitis_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7800618"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_tick_borne_encephalitis_vaccine_7800618"},{"id":"w_japanese_encephalitis_vaccine_4007171","name":"Japanese encephalitis vaccine","year":1954,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Any of several vaccines against Japanese encephalitis. 1954 – First vaccine for Japanese encephalitis","verdict":"Advance: An inactivated mouse-brain vaccine licensed in Japan in 1954 began control of Japanese encephalitis, now targeted by safer cell-culture vaccines.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Japanese_encephalitis_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4007171"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_japanese_encephalitis_vaccine_4007171"},{"id":"w_adenovirus_vaccine_4682307","name":"Adenovirus vaccine","year":1957,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine against adenovirus. 1957 – First vaccine for adenovirus -4 and 7","verdict":"Advance: Protected military recruits from adenovirus outbreaks.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenovirus_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4682307"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_adenovirus_vaccine_4682307"},{"id":"w_mumps_vaccine_6935478","name":"Mumps vaccine","year":1967,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine which prevents mumps. 1967 – First vaccine for mumps","verdict":"Advance: Maurice Hilleman's mumps vaccine, grown from his daughter's virus (1967), joined MMR and cut US cases by more than 99%.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mumps_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6935478"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_mumps_vaccine_6935478"},{"id":"w_rubella_vaccine_7375928","name":"Rubella vaccine","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine used to prevent rubella. 1970 – First vaccine for rubella","verdict":"Advance: Rubella vaccines, licensed in 1969–70, prevent the birth defects that a 1964 US epidemic caused in about 20,000 babies.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rubella_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7375928"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_rubella_vaccine_7375928"},{"id":"w_pneumococcal_vaccine_14538008","name":"Pneumococcal vaccine","year":1977,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccine to prevent infection by the bacterium Stretococcus pneumoniae. 1977 – First vaccine for pneumonia ( Streptococcus pneumoniae )","verdict":"Advance: The 14-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (1977) began protecting the elderly against pneumonia's top bacterial cause.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pneumococcal_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14538008"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pneumococcal_vaccine_14538008"},{"id":"w_meningococcal_vaccine_6817090","name":"Meningococcal vaccine","year":1978,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Vaccines used to prevent infection by Neisseria meningitidis. 1978 – First vaccine for meningitis ( Neisseria meningitidis )","verdict":"Advance: Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines, developed by Gotschlich and Artenstein for the US Army, curbed meningitis outbreaks in recruits and the African belt.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Meningococcal_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6817090"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_meningococcal_vaccine_6817090"},{"id":"w_varicella_vaccine_2721987","name":"Varicella vaccine","year":1984,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine to prevent chickenpox. 1984 – First vaccine for chicken pox","verdict":"Advance: Michiaki Takahashi's 1974 Oka strain became the chickenpox vaccine, cutting US hospitalizations by about 90%.","dependencies":[],"region":"japan","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Varicella_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2721987"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_varicella_vaccine_2721987"},{"id":"w_hib_vaccine_368134","name":"Hib vaccine","year":1985,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine. 1985 – First vaccine for Haemophilus influenzae type b (HiB)","verdict":"Advance: Polysaccharide (1985) then conjugate (1987) Hib vaccines nearly eliminated a leading cause of infant meningitis.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hib_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q368134"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hib_vaccine_368134"},{"id":"w_hantavirus_vaccine_17138123","name":"Hantavirus vaccine","year":1990,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine that protects humans against hantavirus infections. 1990 – First vaccine for hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome","verdict":"Advance: Hantavax, licensed in South Korea in 1990, guards against haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (claimed efficacy is debated).","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantavirus_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17138123"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_hantavirus_vaccine_17138123"},{"id":"w_pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine_7205991","name":"Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine","year":2000,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Pneumococcal vaccine and a conjugate vaccine. 2000 – First pneumococcal conjugate vaccine approved in the U.S. (PCV7 or Prevnar)","verdict":"Advance: Prevnar (2000) protected infants by conjugating sugars to protein, and invasive pneumococcal disease in young US children fell by more than 75%.","dependencies":["w_pneumococcal_vaccine_14538008"],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205991"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine_7205991"},{"id":"w_herpes_zoster_vaccine_8074572","name":"Herpes zoster vaccine","year":2006,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Any vaccine to prevent shingles. 2006 – First herpes zoster vaccine for shingles","verdict":"Advance: Zostavax (2006) and Shingrix (2017, more than 90% effective) cut shingles and its chronic nerve pain in older adults.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zoster_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8074572"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_herpes_zoster_vaccine_8074572"},{"id":"w_dengue_vaccine_18388297","name":"Dengue vaccine","year":2015,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine used to prevent dengue fever in humans. 2015 – First vaccine for dengue fever","verdict":"Advance: Dengvaxia (2015) was the first dengue vaccine, but it raised risk in unexposed children; Qdenga (2022) offers broader protection.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dengue_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18388297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_dengue_vaccine_18388297"},{"id":"w_ebola_vaccine_3553092","name":"Ebola vaccine","year":2019,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine to prevent Ebola. 2019 – First vaccine for Ebola approved","verdict":"Advance: Merck's Ervebo, licensed in 2019 after the 2015 Guinea ring trial, stopped Ebola outbreaks with nearly 100% efficacy.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Ebola_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3553092"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_ebola_vaccine_3553092"},{"id":"w_respiratory_syncytial_virus_vaccine_96401585","name":"Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). 2023 – First respiratory syncytial virus vaccine","verdict":"Advance: GSK's Arexvy and Pfizer's Abrysvo (2023) became the first RSV vaccines, protecting older adults and, via mothers, newborns.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Respiratory_syncytial_virus_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96401585"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_respiratory_syncytial_virus_vaccine_96401585"},{"id":"w_chikungunya_vaccine_123385957","name":"Chikungunya vaccine","year":2023,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"frontier","statusRaw":"emerging","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against the chikungunya virus. 2023 – First vaccine for Chikungunya","verdict":"Advance: Valneva's Ixchiq, approved in November 2023, became the first chikungunya vaccine, protecting travellers and endemic regions from a disabling mosquito-borne fever.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikungunya_vaccine","https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_human_vaccines","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123385957"],"sourcePrimary":"wikipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":null,"progressNote":null,"tier":null,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#w_chikungunya_vaccine_123385957"},{"id":"w_ibm_system_370_1586139","name":"IBM System/370","year":1970,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"IBM mainframe computer architecture. The first System/370, the S/370-155, is shipped in January.","verdict":"Advance: IBM's System/370 (1970) introduced virtual memory to mainframes, backward compatible to this day.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/IBM_System%2F370","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1586139"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_ibm_system_370_1586139"},{"id":"w_chroot_175297","name":"Chroot","year":1979,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Operation that changes the apparent root directory in Unix-like systems. The chroot system call is introduced during development of Version 7 Unix, laying a foundation for container virtualization.","verdict":"Advance: The chroot system call (1979) isolates directories, an ancestor of containers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chroot","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175297"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_chroot_175297"},{"id":"w_mit_lincoln_laboratory_3138607","name":"MIT Lincoln Laboratory","year":1951,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Research and development center. Kevin Lawton leaves MIT Lincoln Lab and starts the Bochs project.","verdict":"Advance: MIT Lincoln Lab (1951) built SAGE air defence and the TX-0, pioneering interactive computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/MIT_Lincoln_Laboratory","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3138607"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_mit_lincoln_laboratory_3138607"},{"id":"w_x86_virtualization_1471952","name":"X86 virtualization","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hardware-assisted virtualization on x86/x86-64 CPUs. February 8: VMware introduces the first x86 virtualization product for the Intel IA-32 architecture, known as VMware Virtual Platform, based on earlier research by its founders at Stanford University.","verdict":"Advance: VMware's 1999 virtualization of x86 consolidated servers and enabled cloud computing.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/X86_virtualization","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1471952"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_x86_virtualization_1471952"},{"id":"w_libvirt_1188957","name":"Libvirt","year":2005,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Virtualization middleware. December 19, 2005 First release of the open-source platform virtualisation manager, libvirt.","verdict":"Advance: Red Hat's libvirt (2005) gave a common API for managing virtual machines.","dependencies":[],"region":"europe","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Libvirt","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1188957"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_libvirt_1188957"},{"id":"w_kernel_based_virtual_machine_377539","name":"Kernel-based Virtual Machine","year":2007,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Virtualization module in the Linux kernel. KVM, a virtualization module integrated into the Linux kernel, is released.","verdict":"Advance: Avi Kivity's KVM (2007) made Linux a hypervisor, powering much of the cloud.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kernel-based_Virtual_Machine","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q377539"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kernel_based_virtual_machine_377539"},{"id":"w_solaris_containers_1128477","name":"Solaris Containers","year":2004,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":2,"summary":"OS-level virtualisation. Sun releases Solaris 8 Containers to enable migration of a Solaris 8 computer into a Solaris Container on a Solaris 10 system – for SPARC only.","verdict":"Advance: Sun's Solaris Zones (2004) isolated applications on one OS kernel, prefiguring Docker containers.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solaris_Containers","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128477"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_solaris_containers_1128477"},{"id":"w_hyper_v_11278","name":"Hyper-V","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Type 1 hypervisor produced by Microsoft, available either standalone or as a feature of certain Windows Server and Windows 8 versions. September 24, 2007 Microsoft releases the first public build of its hypervisor, Hyper-V, codenamed \"Viridian\".","verdict":"Advance: Microsoft's Hyper-V (2008) brought hypervisors into Windows Server, powering Azure.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hyper-V","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11278"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_hyper_v_11278"},{"id":"w_application_virtualization_651531","name":"Application virtualization","year":2008,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Software technology that encapsulates computer programs from the underlying operating system on which it is executed. January 15, 2008 VMware, Inc. announces it has entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Thinstall, a privately held application virtualization software company.","verdict":"Advance: Isolated apps from the operating system.","dependencies":[],"region":"unattributed","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Application_virtualization","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q651531"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_application_virtualization_651531"},{"id":"w_vmware_workstation_200789","name":"VMware Workstation","year":1999,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Hosted hypervisor for Windows and Linux. April: VMware releases VMware Workstation 6.5 beta, the first program for Windows and Linux to enable DirectX 9 accelerated graphics on Windows XP guests.","verdict":"Advance: VMware Workstation (1999) let developers run several operating systems on one PC, launching the virtualization industry.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/VMware_Workstation","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200789"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"audited","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_vmware_workstation_200789"},{"id":"w_docker_15206305","name":"Docker","year":2013,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Open-source software for deploying and running of containerized applications. Docker, Inc. releases Docker, a series of platform as a service (PaaS) products that use OS-level virtualization.","verdict":"Advance: Docker (2013) packaged applications in containers that run identically everywhere, transforming deployment.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Docker_(software)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15206305"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_docker_15206305"},{"id":"w_kubernetes_22661306","name":"Kubernetes","year":2014,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Software to manage containers on a server-cluster. The first public build of Kubernetes is released on September 8, 2014. When Kubernetes debuted, it offered a number of advantages over Docker, the most popular containerization platform at the time.","verdict":"Advance: Google's Kubernetes (2014) orchestrates containers, becoming the standard for cloud infrastructure.","dependencies":[],"region":"n_america","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kubernetes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_technologies","https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22661306"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"fixed-from-wikidata","scoring":"heuristic","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#w_kubernetes_22661306"},{"id":"fermentation","name":"Fermentation (beer, wine, leavening)","year":-7000,"date":null,"approx":true,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"achieved","statusRaw":"historical","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Residues in pottery jars at Jiahu, China (c. 7000 BC) show a fermented rice, honey and fruit drink; Georgian jars hold grape wine by c. 6000 BC. Beer residues at Raqefet Cave, Israel, have been claimed for c. 11,000 BC.","verdict":"Advance: Harnessing invisible yeasts and bacteria turned perishable grain and fruit into storable drinks, leavened bread and preserved foods. Millennia later, asking why fermentation worked led Pasteur to microbes and germ theory.","dependencies":["agriculture","pottery"],"region":"china","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fermentation","https://grokipedia.com/page/Jiahu","https://grokipedia.com/page/Alcoholic_drink"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"manual","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#fermentation"},{"id":"cap_ftl","name":"Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Reaching other stars in less time than light takes, by engineering spacetime itself (an Alcubierre-type warp metric or a traversable wormhole) rather than outrunning light locally. Every known route needs physics we do not have yet, so this spire is the tallest.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["warp_probe","wormhole_stab","unk_causality","interstellar_comms","crewed_warp_ship","f_open_inquiry","f_long_horizon","f_talent","f_peace"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Faster-than-light"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No known physical mechanism; every proposal needs exotic matter or new physics.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":80,"chain":14,"tier3":13,"unknowns":5,"firstTier":19,"levels":{"none":13,"early":27,"demonstrated":35,"deploying":5},"score":35,"firstScore":50,"foundDirect":["f_open_inquiry","f_long_horizon","f_talent","f_peace"],"foundAll":11,"anchors":122},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#cap_ftl"},{"id":"cap_lifespan","name":"Unlimited healthy human lifespan","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Aging stops being a cause of death: damage is repaired faster than it accumulates, in every tissue, including the brain. It is largely an engineering and biology problem, with no new physics required.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["longevity","brain_rejuv","cell_repair_nano","aging_causal_model","organ_on_demand","radiation_resist","f_permitting","f_honest_money","f_open_inquiry","f_demographics"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Life_extension"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No intervention has yet extended maximum human lifespan.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":67,"chain":8,"tier3":3,"unknowns":0,"firstTier":24,"levels":{"none":6,"early":24,"demonstrated":33,"deploying":4},"score":35,"firstScore":50,"foundDirect":["f_permitting","f_honest_money","f_open_inquiry","f_demographics"],"foundAll":12,"anchors":104},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#cap_lifespan"},{"id":"cap_terraform","name":"Terraforming","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Making another world, most likely Mars, habitable to unprotected life by thickening its atmosphere, warming it, shielding it, and seeding a biosphere. No new physics is needed, but the industrial scale is enormous and needs a self-replicating space economy.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["biosphere_seeding","mars_magnetosphere","volatile_delivery","orbital_mirrors","mars_atmo_thicken","planetary_stewardship","oneill_habitat","f_long_horizon","f_peace","f_rule_of_law","f_demographics"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Terraforming"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No planet-scale environmental change attempted anywhere off Earth.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":70,"chain":12,"tier3":3,"unknowns":0,"firstTier":20,"levels":{"none":7,"early":22,"demonstrated":36,"deploying":5},"score":40,"firstScore":55,"foundDirect":["f_long_horizon","f_peace","f_rule_of_law","f_demographics"],"foundAll":12,"anchors":111},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#cap_terraform"},{"id":"cap_gov","name":"Effective, efficient government","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Government that reliably delivers outcomes at low cost and with consent: policies are tested before enactment, measured after, and administered with near-zero friction. It is mostly a social-technology problem, so the chain is short but adoption is hard.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["simulationism","futarchy","ai_civil_service","rules_as_code","deliberation_scale","ai_alignment","zk_identity","liquid_democracy","f_integrity","f_trust","f_rule_of_law","f_education","machine_ethics_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Evidence-based_policy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No government yet tests policy on validated simulated societies before enacting it.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":29,"chain":5,"tier3":0,"unknowns":0,"firstTier":12,"levels":{"none":1,"early":5,"demonstrated":18,"deploying":5},"score":50,"firstScore":60,"foundDirect":["f_integrity","f_trust","f_rule_of_law","f_education"],"foundAll":7,"anchors":57},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#cap_gov"},{"id":"cap_abundance","name":"Post-scarcity energy and matter","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Energy, materials, food, water, and manufactured goods become so cheap that material scarcity stops constraining human lives. It combines abundant clean energy with self-replicating automation and atomically precise manufacturing.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["energy_too_cheap","robot_economy","molecular_mfg","atomic_recycling","asteroid_mining","food_abundance","water_abundance","automation_dividend","dac_gigaton","f_cheap_energy","f_permitting","f_honest_money","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Post-scarcity"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Energy and goods still priced by scarcity everywhere.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":45,"chain":8,"tier3":0,"unknowns":0,"firstTier":15,"levels":{"none":2,"early":10,"demonstrated":28,"deploying":5},"score":45,"firstScore":55,"foundDirect":["f_cheap_energy","f_permitting","f_honest_money","f_rule_of_law"],"foundAll":7,"anchors":76},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#cap_abundance"},{"id":"cap_mind","name":"Mind uploading / human–AI merge","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"A human mind that continues on (or seamlessly extends into) a computational substrate, by gradual neural integration or whole-brain emulation. The deepest unknown is not engineering but whether, and how, identity and experience carry over.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["wbe_human","bci_merge","unk_consciousness","nondestructive_scan","asi","digital_mind_ethics","f_open_inquiry","f_trust","f_talent","f_education","machine_ethics_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mind_uploading"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No neural system of any size has been uploaded or emulated with fidelity.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":53,"chain":9,"tier3":6,"unknowns":1,"firstTier":15,"levels":{"none":7,"early":21,"demonstrated":21,"deploying":4},"score":35,"firstScore":50,"foundDirect":["f_open_inquiry","f_trust","f_talent","f_education"],"foundAll":9,"anchors":87},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#cap_mind"},{"id":"cap_nano","name":"Nanomachines (molecular assemblers)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":10,"summary":"Drexler-style molecular nanotechnology: programmable machines that build almost anything atom by atom, from diamondoid structures to medical nanobots. It is engineering-limited, not physics-limited, but no one has yet demonstrated a general assembler.","verdict":"Capstone moonshot.","dependencies":["programmable_assemblers","nano_control","nano_safety","diamondoid_scale","self_healing","f_peace","f_trust","f_honest_money","f_open_inquiry"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Molecular_nanotechnology"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No general-purpose molecular assembler exists, even in the lab.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":{"precursors":31,"chain":7,"tier3":1,"unknowns":0,"firstTier":11,"levels":{"none":3,"early":9,"demonstrated":17,"deploying":2},"score":40,"firstScore":50,"foundDirect":["f_peace","f_trust","f_honest_money","f_open_inquiry"],"foundAll":9,"anchors":66},"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#cap_nano"},{"id":"mars_outpost","name":"Permanent crewed Mars outpost","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Continuously crewed Mars base resupplied from Earth: the step between a first landing and a self-sustaining city.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["mars","isru","closed_eco","space_nuclear","radiation_shield"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Colonization_of_Mars"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No crewed Mars landing yet; outpost concepts only (SpaceX, NASA Moon to Mars architecture).","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mars_outpost"},{"id":"outer_moon_settlement","name":"Outer-moon settlement (Titan, Callisto or Ganymede)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A crewed base among the giant planets. Callisto sits outside Jupiter's worst radiation; Titan has a thick atmosphere and hydrocarbons.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["nuclear_propulsion","closed_eco","radiation_shield","space_nuclear","isru","mars_outpost"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Callisto_(moon)"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Robotic only: Europa Clipper and JUICE en route, Dragonfly to Titan in development. No crewed outer-planet mission planned.","tier":3,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#outer_moon_settlement"},{"id":"riemann","name":"Riemann hypothesis","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem: all nontrivial zeros of the zeta function lie on the critical line. It underpins the distribution of primes.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","lean"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Riemann_hypothesis"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open. Verified numerically for trillions of zeros; no proof.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#riemann"},{"id":"p_vs_np","name":"P vs NP","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem: can every quickly checked solution also be quickly found? The answer shapes cryptography, AI and optimization.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","lean","turing"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/P_versus_NP_problem"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open; known barrier results (relativization, natural proofs, algebrization) rule out many approaches.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#p_vs_np"},{"id":"navier_stokes","name":"Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness (unforced)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem: do smooth 3D fluid flows stay smooth forever? The unforced question remains open.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","navier_stokes_claim","euler_unforced_blowup"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_existence_and_smoothness"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Unforced case open. OpenAI claims a forced finite-time blow-up (Clay alternatives C/D, Sep 2026) with a Lean formalization whose match to the paper is disputed; claimed, not accepted by Clay.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#navier_stokes"},{"id":"yang_mills","name":"Yang–Mills existence and mass gap","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem: give quantum Yang–Mills theory a rigorous footing and prove its lightest particle has positive mass.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","quantum","quantum_sim_fields"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_existence_and_mass_gap"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open; lattice simulations support a mass gap, no proof.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#yang_mills"},{"id":"hodge","name":"Hodge conjecture","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem linking the topology of complex algebraic varieties to their algebraic subvarieties.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","lean"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hodge_conjecture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open; known in low dimensions and special cases.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#hodge"},{"id":"bsd","name":"Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Millennium Prize problem: the rank of an elliptic curve equals the order of vanishing of its L-function at 1.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["ai_run_math","lean"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Birch_and_Swinnerton-Dyer_conjecture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Proved for analytic rank 0 and 1 (Gross–Zagier, Kolyvagin); open in general.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#bsd"},{"id":"dark_energy","name":"Nature of dark energy","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"What drives the accelerating expansion of the universe: a cosmological constant or something that evolves?","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["beyond_sm","gw_space_obs","optical_clocks"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dark_energy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"DESI 2024–25 results hint that dark energy may evolve over time; not yet decisive.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#dark_energy"},{"id":"baryon_asymmetry","name":"Matter–antimatter asymmetry","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Why the universe contains matter but almost no antimatter. The Standard Model's CP violation is far too small to explain it.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["beyond_sm","next_collider"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Baryon_asymmetry"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open; CP violation measured in quarks and first seen in baryons (LHCb 2025), still too small.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#baryon_asymmetry"},{"id":"abiogenesis","name":"Origin of life (abiogenesis)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"How chemistry became biology: a full, reproducible path from simple molecules to a self-replicating, evolving cell.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["minimal_cell","genome_writing","auto_lab"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Abiogenesis"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Pieces demonstrated (Miller–Urey amino acids, self-replicating RNA ribozymes); no complete lab pathway.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#abiogenesis"},{"id":"vn_probe_interstellar","name":"Interstellar von Neumann probe","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Stage 2: a probe that reaches another star system, builds copies of itself from local material and sends them on, spreading across the galaxy at sublight speed. If such probes are possible, their absence is one form of the Fermi paradox.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["self_rep_space_factory","interstellar_probe","fusion_propulsion","agi"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-replicating_spacecraft"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Concept only. Sublight route, not dependent on FTL.","tier":3,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#vn_probe_interstellar"},{"id":"f_rule_of_law","name":"Rule of law and secure property and contracts","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Courts that enforce contracts and protect property, for strangers and rulers alike. Without them, nobody funds a 20-year bet.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["rule_of_law","common_law","property_rights","glorious_revolution"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rule_of_law"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Strong in a minority of countries; the World Justice Project index has recorded more countries declining than improving for several years.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_rule_of_law"},{"id":"f_honest_money","name":"Honest money and deep capital markets","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Sound money and cheap, honest long-term credit that can fund moonshots. Historic usury bans were drift; so is predatory debt.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["glorious_revolution","amsterdam_wisselbank","stock_exchange","central_bank","usury_bans"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Capital_market"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Deep, honest capital markets exist in a few financial centres; much of the world lacks affordable long-term credit.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#f_honest_money"},{"id":"f_integrity","name":"Low corruption and institutional integrity","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Public money and permits go where the rules say, so big programmes deliver instead of leaking.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["rule_of_law","civil_exam","antitrust"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Corruption_Perceptions_Index"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Transparency International's CPI 2024: over two-thirds of countries score below 50/100; a handful show that low corruption is achievable.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_integrity"},{"id":"f_long_horizon","name":"Long-horizon, stable governance","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Institutions that can commit to and fund multi-decade programmes across elections and leadership changes.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["constitution","apollo","manhattan","nsf"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Megaproject"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Multi-decade programmes exist (CERN, ITER, national space and grid plans), but most budgets are re-fought every year.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_long_horizon"},{"id":"f_open_inquiry","name":"Open inquiry and free speech","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"The freedom to question, publish and be wrong in public: the engine of error correction.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["enlightenment","printing_press","peer_review","galileo_affair"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Freedom_of_speech"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Freedom House has reported almost two decades of consecutive global decline; open inquiry is secure in a minority of countries.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_open_inquiry"},{"id":"f_talent","name":"Talent mobility (high-skill immigration, brain circulation)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"The best minds can move to where the work is and move back, so talent compounds instead of being wasted.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["research_univ","university","royal_society"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"High-skill visas exist but are capped and slow almost everywhere; circulation works mainly among a few hubs.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_talent"},{"id":"f_permitting","name":"Fast permitting and clear, minimal regulation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Clear standards that create markets (like the shipping container) instead of open-ended review that adds drag.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["iso_container","post_tmi","reg_capture"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Environmental_impact_statement"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"A few jurisdictions build fast; a typical US federal environmental impact statement takes over four years (CEQ).","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_permitting"},{"id":"f_cheap_energy","name":"Abundant, cheap energy","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Energy per person is the root of every capability on this spire, from compute to desalination to launch.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["electric_grid","nuclear_power","solar_passes_nuclear"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Energy_poverty"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Solar is now the cheapest new power in many markets, yet hundreds of millions of people still lack electricity (IEA).","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#f_cheap_energy"},{"id":"f_peace","name":"Deterrence and great-power peace","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"No great-power war, so capital and talent go into building instead of destroying.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["manhattan","ww2","bretton_woods","red_cross"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Long_Peace"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"No direct great-power war since 1945 (the 'Long Peace'), but proxy wars and rising rivalry persist.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#f_peace"},{"id":"f_demographics","name":"Healthy demographics","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Stabilising or above-replacement fertility keeps a young, growing pool of builders. The fertility collapse is a major slow drift.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming.","dependencies":["pill","ivf","welfare_state"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Total_fertility_rate"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"UN World Population Prospects 2024: fertility is below replacement in more than half of countries, and no policy has reliably restored it.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_demographics"},{"id":"f_education","name":"Mass education and numeracy","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"A population that can read, calculate and reason, and so can build, check and govern advanced technology.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["reformation_literacy","research_univ","printing_press"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Literacy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Most adults worldwide are literate (UNESCO), but the World Bank finds most 10-year-olds in low- and middle-income countries cannot read a simple text.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_education"},{"id":"f_trust","name":"High-trust society","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Strangers cooperate, contracts are cheap and institutions are believed, which makes ambitious collective projects possible.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["social_contract","red_cross","rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Generalised trust is high in a few countries (e.g. the Nordics) and low in most, per the World Values Survey.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#f_trust"},{"id":"machine_ethics_law","name":"Binding machine-ethics law (Asimov-style laws in statute)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Enforceable law that AI systems themselves must obey (harm avoidance, obedience within limits, honesty), verified in the systems and not just required of their makers.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["eu_ai_act","un_laws_resolution","dod_3000_09","unesco_ai_ethics","ep_robotics_2017","korea_robot_charter","epsrc_principles","asimov_laws","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Machine_ethics"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No statute binds machines to Asimov-style laws; the EU AI Act places oversight duties on providers and deployers, not on the systems.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#machine_ethics_law"},{"id":"ai_compute_abund","name":"Zettascale AI compute","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Training and inference clusters a thousand times larger than today's, built on next-node lithography, chiplets, and stacked memory. Nearly every other precursor draws on it.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ai_dc_buildout","euv","high_na","chiplets","hbm","f_cheap_energy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Supercomputer"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Clusters of 100k+ accelerators run; zettascale systems announced but not yet the norm.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ai_compute_abund"},{"id":"photonic_compute","name":"Photonic and optical computing at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Moving data and some arithmetic onto light to break the power wall of electronic interconnect. It is needed for brain-scale emulation and energy-efficient AI.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["photonic_ai","silicon_photonics","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Optical_computing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-28 · PsiQuantum shipping samples of an 8x8 silicon-photonic optical circuit switch for AI data centers, ~1.2 dB loss, <3 ms reconfig (psiquantum.com); interconnect switching only, no level change","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#photonic_compute"},{"id":"reversible_logic","name":"Practical reversible / near-Landauer computing","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Computing that approaches the thermodynamic minimum energy per operation. It is required for planet- and brain-scale simulation without planet-scale heat.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["reversible","photonic_compute"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Reversible_computing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Adiabatic/reversible test chips and theory only.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#reversible_logic"},{"id":"agi","name":"Artificial general intelligence","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"AI systems that match expert humans across most cognitive work, including open-ended research and engineering. It is the common engine behind nearly every moonshot.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ai_agents","reasoning_models","world_models","ai_compute_abund","f_talent"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_general_intelligence"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Frontier models are broad but uneven; no agreed demonstration of general intelligence.","tier":2,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#agi"},{"id":"ai_alignment","name":"Verifiable AI alignment and oversight","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Methods to specify, verify, and audit what powerful AI systems do and why. This is a precondition for trusting AI with science, governance, and our minds.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ai_policy","lean","reasoning_models","interp","compute_governance","f_open_inquiry","f_trust","machine_ethics_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/AI_alignment"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"RLHF-style training is deployed, but no method yet verifies alignment.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ai_alignment"},{"id":"ai_auto_ai_research","name":"AI-automated AI research","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"AI agents that design, run and analyse AI experiments themselves, with people setting direction and judging results. Labs report intern-level systems already.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["ai_agents","alphaevolve_stack","ai_scientist_sakana","openai_research_intern","nas"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"OpenAI reports an intern-level automated researcher (Sept 2026); fully automated researcher targeted for 2028.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ai_auto_ai_research"},{"id":"rsi_hardware","name":"AI-designed AI chips in a closed loop (RSI hardware)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"AI designs the next accelerator, which trains a better designer, with tape-out, fabrication and verification increasingly automated. Each turn of the loop makes the next one faster.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["alphachip","dso_ai","alphaevolve_stack","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"AI already lays out parts of TPUs and tunes commercial chips; the full loop is not closed.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#rsi_hardware"},{"id":"rsi","name":"Recursive self-improvement (RSI)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"AI systems that improve their own algorithms, training and hardware, each generation building the next. This is the bridge from AGI to superintelligence, and the point where verifiable alignment matters most.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["agi","ai_agents","ai_auto_ai_research","ai_compute_abund","rsi_hardware","ai_alignment"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Partial loops exist (AlphaEvolve, AlphaChip); no end-to-end self-improving system.","tier":2,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#rsi"},{"id":"asi","name":"Superintelligence","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Intelligence far beyond the best humans in science and engineering. Its limits are unknown (tier 3), but it would compress centuries of R&D into years.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["agi","ai_alignment","ai_compute_abund","rsi"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Superintelligence"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No system exceeds top humans across domains.","tier":3,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#asi"},{"id":"auto_lab","name":"Self-driving laboratories","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Robotic labs where AI plans, runs, and analyzes experiments in closed loops, 24/7. This turns science from artisanal into industrial.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["ai_science","rt2","humanoids","f_talent","f_education"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laboratory_automation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-28 · Same Exin claim: AI agent chose among 19 vectors and ran the in-vivo step (founder post; claimed); no level change","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#auto_lab"},{"id":"ai_run_math","name":"AI-run mathematics","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"AI systems find, prove and formally check new theorems with people as reviewers. Expert verification, not generation, is now the bottleneck.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["ai_math","lean","kls_conjecture","brennan_conjecture","navier_stokes_claim","euler_unforced_blowup","openai_math_722","openai_math_withdrawn3"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-26 · Axiom AI agents produced a sorry-free 43.1M-line Lean proof of CFSG in 24 days and repaired a published gap (axiommath.ai, Oct 26); formalization, not a new solve, so no level change","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#ai_run_math"},{"id":"solve_everything","name":"\"Solve Everything\": AI-run science","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Automated discovery across all fields: AI generates hypotheses, tests them in robotic labs, and formally verifies results. It feeds every capstone.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["agi","auto_lab","ai_math","ai_science","ai_run_math","f_open_inquiry"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"AI-driven results remain almost all in math (ledger: 1 physics claim, unverified); no field yet runs on AI-led discovery.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#solve_everything"},{"id":"formal_verif_scale","name":"Formally verified AI-written software","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"AI writes proofs alongside code, so critical software (grids, reactors, governments, implants) is provably correct.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["lean","ai_coding","ai_math"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Formal_verification"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-26 · Axiom AI agents machine-checked the 15,000-page CFSG in Lean (axiommath.ai + github.com/AxiomMath/CFSG); proof-scale, not software, so no level change","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#formal_verif_scale"},{"id":"ftqc","name":"Fault-tolerant quantum computing at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Millions of physical qubits running error-corrected algorithms. It unlocks exact chemistry, materials design, and quantum simulation of physics.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["willow","neutral_atom","qec","f_long_horizon","f_talent"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Threshold_theorem"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Below-threshold logical qubits and chip-to-chip links shown; no large fault-tolerant machine.","tier":1,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#ftqc"},{"id":"quantum_chem_exact","name":"Chemically exact molecular simulation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Predicting reactions, catalysts, and molecular machines from first principles before synthesis. This is the design tool for nanotech, batteries, drugs, and superconductors.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ftqc","ai_science","alphafold3"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Computational_chemistry"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Exact simulation is limited to small molecules; quantum advantage for chemistry not shown.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#quantum_chem_exact"},{"id":"quantum_sim_fields","name":"Quantum simulation of quantum field theory and spacetime","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Using quantum computers to simulate field theories and toy models of quantum gravity that no classical machine can, giving new physics a testbed.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["ftqc","w_standard_model_18338"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_simulator"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Small lattice gauge-theory simulations on quantum hardware only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#quantum_sim_fields"},{"id":"materials_genome","name":"Inverse materials design","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Specify the properties and AI returns a synthesizable material. It is already producing millions of candidate crystals.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["gnome","gnome_db","ai_science"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"AI predicted hundreds of thousands of stable crystals and robots synthesized dozens; not routine industrial practice.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#materials_genome"},{"id":"hts_magnets","name":"REBCO high-field superconducting magnets at industrial scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"High-temperature superconducting tape (REBCO) magnets at 20 T and above, made by the thousand. They enable compact fusion, maglev, and magnetospheric shields.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["w_superconductivity_124131","fusion_pre"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-temperature_superconductivity"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"20 tesla REBCO fusion-scale magnet tested; tape supply still scaling.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#hts_magnets"},{"id":"rt_superconductor","name":"Room-temperature, ambient-pressure superconductor","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"A material that superconducts without cooling or crushing pressure. It is not known to exist (tier 3, an open question in condensed-matter physics), but it would transform grids, magnets, and computing.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["materials_genome","quantum_chem_exact"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Room-temperature_superconductor"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No confirmed ambient superconductor; the LK-99 claim was refuted.","tier":3,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#rt_superconductor"},{"id":"fusion_power","name":"Commercial fusion power","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Net-electric fusion plants delivering power to the grid. Ignition has been shown; engineering the plant is the remaining work.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["fusion_ignition","hts_magnets","tokamak_rl","general_fusion_1kev","f_honest_money","f_long_horizon","iter_construction"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fusion_power"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Ignition-level target gain shown at NIF, but no device has produced net electricity.","tier":2,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#fusion_power"},{"id":"aneutronic_fusion","name":"Aneutronic fusion (p–B11, D–He3)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Fusion that releases energy mostly as charged particles, allowing direct conversion to electricity with little neutron damage. It is far harder than D–T fusion.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["fusion_power","quantum_sim_fields","tritium_cycle"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Aneutronic_fusion"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"p–B11 reactions observed in lab plasmas; far from net energy.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#aneutronic_fusion"},{"id":"advanced_fission","name":"Mass-produced advanced fission","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Factory-built reactors (molten salt, high-temperature gas, fast) deployed like aircraft engines. This is firm power for industry and space.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["smr","nuclear_power","f_permitting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Generation_IV_reactor"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"A handful of advanced reactors operate (e.g. China's HTR-PM); not mass-produced.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#advanced_fission"},{"id":"superhot_geo","name":"Superhot-rock geothermal","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Drilling to supercritical-temperature rock for baseload power almost anywhere on Earth.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["geothermal_enh","subsea_geothermal","f_permitting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Enhanced_geothermal_system"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Drilling and well tests only; no superhot-rock power plant.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#superhot_geo"},{"id":"solar_tw","name":"Terawatt-scale solar plus storage","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Tandem solar cells and cheap batteries deployed at multi-terawatt scale. The near-term workhorse of abundance.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["solar_cheap","perovskite","sodium_battery","long_storage"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Solar_power"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Terawatts of PV installed; solar overtook nuclear generation in H1 2026 (Ember).","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#solar_tw"},{"id":"global_grid","name":"Continental HVDC and superconducting grids","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Long-distance, low-loss transmission that moves sunlight across time zones and links every source to every load.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["hts_magnets","solar_tw","f_permitting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/High-voltage_direct_current"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"National UHVDC backbones operate (China); continental and superconducting links not yet.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#global_grid"},{"id":"energy_too_cheap","name":"Energy too cheap to meter","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Clean electricity at a fraction of today's cost, everywhere. Desalination, direct air capture, and atom-level recycling become cheap.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["solar_tw","fusion_power","advanced_fission","superhot_geo","global_grid","long_storage","f_cheap_energy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cost_of_electricity_by_source"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Marginal energy is still metered and priced everywhere.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#energy_too_cheap"},{"id":"space_solar","name":"Space-based solar power","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gigawatt solar collectors in orbit beaming power to Earth and to orbital industry.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["space_industry","solar_tw"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space-based_solar_power"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Orbital demo beamed microwave power (Caltech MAPLE); no operational system.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#space_solar"},{"id":"dyson_swarm","name":"Solar-system power swarm (Dyson swarm segments)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Self-replicating factories turn asteroid material into collectors orbiting the Sun, scaling energy capture by orders of magnitude. Needed for planet-scale and spacetime-scale engineering.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["space_solar","self_rep_space_factory"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dyson_sphere"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No space power infrastructure beyond satellites.","tier":3,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#dyson_swarm"},{"id":"antimatter_factory","name":"Antimatter production at gram scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Producing and storing antimatter in quantities useful for propulsion and high-energy physics. Today's output is nanograms, so this is an efficiency gap of many orders of magnitude.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["w_antimatter_83197","dyson_swarm","hts_magnets"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Antimatter"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"CERN makes nanograms-scale quantities per year at most.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#antimatter_factory"},{"id":"dna_nanotech","name":"Programmable DNA nanomachines","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"DNA origami and DNA walkers that position molecules with nanometre precision. This is a working toolkit for building at the molecular scale.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["synthetic_bio","dna_storage"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/DNA_nanotechnology"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"DNA origami devices and robots work in labs and animal studies.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#dna_nanotech"},{"id":"protein_machines","name":"De novo designed protein machines","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"AI-designed proteins that act as motors, switches, and enzymes nature never evolved. These are the soft path to molecular machines.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["alphafold3","alphafold"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Protein_design"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"De novo designed rotors, switches and binders work in the lab; few products.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#protein_machines"},{"id":"mechanosynthesis","name":"Scanning-probe mechanosynthesis","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Placing individual atoms with a probe tip to form covalent bonds on command. Simple cases have been shown (Si atom manipulation); general reliability has not.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["w_fullerene_178026","quantum_chem_exact"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Single-atom placement by scanning probe; no tool-built covalent structures.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#mechanosynthesis"},{"id":"cnt_graphene_mfg","name":"Defect-free carbon nanomaterials at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Kilometre-long nanotubes and wafer-scale graphene without defects. These are the materials for space tethers, superconductors, and nanomachines.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["w_graphene_169917","w_carbon_nanotube_1778729","materials_genome"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Carbon_nanotube"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Bulk nanocarbon is made, but defect-free material only at tiny scale.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#cnt_graphene_mfg"},{"id":"molecular_mfg","name":"Atomically precise manufacturing","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Building products with every atom in its designed place: the bridge between biology's machines and Drexler's assemblers.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["mechanosynthesis","dna_nanotech","protein_machines","quantum_chem_exact","molecular_motors","atomic_imaging"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Molecular_assembler"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Atomically precise patterning in lab demos only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#molecular_mfg"},{"id":"diamondoid_scale","name":"Diamondoid mechanosynthesis at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Showing that stiff diamondoid structures can be assembled reliably, answering the Drexler–Smalley \"fat fingers\" objection in practice.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["molecular_mfg","mechanosynthesis"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Diamondoid"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Exists only in computational designs.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#diamondoid_scale"},{"id":"nano_control","name":"Molecular-scale computing and control","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Rod-logic or molecular processors that tell nanomachines what to build, with verified instruction sets.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["molecular_mfg","formal_verif_scale","dna_nanotech"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Molecular_electronics"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Single-molecule switches and logic gates in the lab.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#nano_control"},{"id":"programmable_assemblers","name":"Programmable molecular assemblers","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"General-purpose machines that build other products, including copies of themselves, from molecular feedstock.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["diamondoid_scale","nano_control","agi"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Molecular_assembler"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Theoretical designs only.","tier":3,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#programmable_assemblers"},{"id":"nano_safety","name":"Sealed-assembler safety and governance","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Broadcast-architecture assemblers, kill switches, and international standards, so nanotech is deployed with confidence instead of fear.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ai_alignment","molecular_mfg","f_peace","f_trust"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Voluntary guidelines exist; no institutions.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#nano_safety"},{"id":"metamaterials_adv","name":"Programmable metamaterials","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Materials whose mechanical, optical, and thermal properties are designed in, from heat shields to cloaks for the radiation environment.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["materials_genome","w_3d_printing_229367"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Metamaterial"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces in field trials; niche products.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#metamaterials_adv"},{"id":"atomic_recycling","name":"Atom-level recycling","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Plasma separation and molecular sorting return any waste stream to pure feedstock, closing the loop on matter.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["energy_too_cheap","molecular_mfg","robot_economy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Plasma_gasification"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Lab-scale elemental separation and recovery research.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#atomic_recycling"},{"id":"general_robots","name":"General-purpose humanoid workforce","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Robots that learn any manual task from demonstration and work safely beside people.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["humanoids","optimus","rt2","sim2real","dexterous_hands"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Humanoid_robot"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Humanoids in paid pilots (e.g. Digit at GXO, now multi-site); not a general workforce.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#general_robots"},{"id":"lights_out_everything","name":"Lights-out factories for most goods","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Fully automated production lines in most industries, not just a few showcase plants.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["fanuc_lights_out","general_robots","gigacasting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lights_out_(manufacturing)"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Lights-out lines exist for some goods (electronics, robot parts); not most goods.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#lights_out_everything"},{"id":"robot_economy","name":"Self-replicating robot industry","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Factories run by robots that build robots and the factories that make them, so capital stock grows exponentially.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["lights_out_everything","agi","general_robots","f_honest_money"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-replicating_machine"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No robot factory builds its own robots without people.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#robot_economy"},{"id":"self_rep_space_factory","name":"Self-replicating space factories","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Stage 1 von Neumann probe: a seed factory in the solar system that turns asteroid or lunar material into copies of itself. Studied by NASA in 1980; RepRap and in-orbit printing are small first steps.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["robot_economy","asteroid_mining","space_industry","isru","agi","general_robots","nasa_aasm","reprap","made_in_space_iss"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-replicating_spacecraft"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Pieces only: RepRap printers make many of their own plastic parts; Made In Space/Redwire printed parts on the ISS from 2014. No closed-loop self-replicating machine exists.","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#self_rep_space_factory"},{"id":"starship_full_reuse","name":"Fully reusable Starship and orbital refilling","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Both stages caught and reflown and propellant transferred in orbit. Launch costs fall by another order of magnitude.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["starship_orbit","booster_catch","raptor"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/SpaceX_Starship"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Booster catch and reflight shown; full ship reuse and orbital refilling not yet operational.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#starship_full_reuse"},{"id":"lunar_base","name":"Permanent lunar base","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"A crewed outpost at the lunar south pole with ice mining. The proving ground for living off-world.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["starship_full_reuse","artemis_lander_conops","iss","construction_robots","f_long_horizon"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Moonbase"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Crewed lunar return and surface hardware are still in development.","tier":1,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#lunar_base"},{"id":"space_nuclear","name":"Space nuclear power (kilowatt to megawatt reactors)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Compact reactors for lunar nights, Martian dust storms, and deep-space industry.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["advanced_fission","nuclear_power"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Kilopower"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Kilopower (KRUSTY) ground-tested; nothing flown.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#space_nuclear"},{"id":"isru","name":"In-situ resource utilization (propellant, water, metals)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Making propellant, oxygen, and metals from local ice and rock. MOXIE has made oxygen on Mars.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["mars_rovers","lunar_base","space_nuclear"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/In_situ_resource_utilization"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"MOXIE made oxygen on Mars; no production plant.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#isru"},{"id":"mars","name":"Humans on Mars","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The first crewed landing on Mars and a return home.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["starship_full_reuse","isru"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_mission_to_Mars"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Crewed Mars hardware still in development; no crewed mission flown.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mars"},{"id":"space_industry","name":"Orbital industry","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Factories, fuel depots, and assembly yards in orbit and on the Moon. Products include fibre optics, pharmaceuticals, and large structures.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["starship_full_reuse","lunar_base","general_robots","mass_driver","f_honest_money","f_peace"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_manufacturing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"In-orbit drug crystallization capsules returned (Varda); small volumes.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#space_industry"},{"id":"asteroid_mining","name":"Asteroid mining","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Extracting water, metals, and volatiles from near-Earth asteroids, the raw material base for the space economy.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["space_industry","isru","robot_economy","space_resource_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Asteroid_mining"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Gram-scale sample returns only; commercial prospecting attempts failed.","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#asteroid_mining"},{"id":"closed_eco","name":"Closed-loop ecological life support","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Recycling air, water, and food at near 100%. The ISS recycles about 98% of its water; full closure has never lasted.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio","precision_ferm","iss","microbiome_eng"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Bioregenerative_life_support_system"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Partial closure experiments (Biosphere 2, BIOS-3); none fully closed long-term.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#closed_eco"},{"id":"nuclear_propulsion","name":"Nuclear thermal and nuclear electric propulsion","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Halving transit times to Mars and opening the outer system. Ground-tested in the 1960s (NERVA).","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["space_nuclear","w_ion_thruster_205702"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nuclear_thermal_rocket"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Nuclear thermal engines ground-tested in the NERVA era; none flown.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#nuclear_propulsion"},{"id":"fusion_propulsion","name":"Fusion propulsion","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Direct fusion drives that make the solar system weeks wide, the prerequisite for moving comets and building megastructures.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["fusion_power","nuclear_propulsion","space_industry"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Fusion_rocket"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Paper studies and small plasma-thruster experiments.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#fusion_propulsion"},{"id":"mars_city","name":"Self-sustaining Mars city","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A million-person city that can survive if the ships stop coming, and the industrial base for terraforming.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["mars_outpost","mars","isru","closed_eco","space_nuclear","robot_economy","construction_robots","radiation_shield","interplanetary_net","f_long_horizon","f_demographics"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Colonization_of_Mars"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Depends on crewed landings that have not happened.","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mars_city"},{"id":"space_elevator","name":"Space elevators and orbital tethers","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Lifting mass to orbit by cable instead of rockets. Feasible first on the Moon and Mars, and on Earth if nanotube strength scales.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["cnt_graphene_mfg","space_industry","w_space_elevator_1473823"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Space_elevator"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"No material strong enough at scale; small tether experiments only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#space_elevator"},{"id":"interstellar_probe","name":"Laser-sail interstellar probes","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gram-scale probes pushed by gigawatt lasers to about 20% of light speed (Breakthrough Starshot concept). These are the first robotic visits to nearby stars.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["space_solar","metamaterials_adv","starlink"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Breakthrough_Starshot"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Design studies and lab beam and sail tests.","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#interstellar_probe"},{"id":"interstellar_comms","name":"Interstellar communication network","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Laser and gravitational-lens relays linking star systems, the nervous system of any FTL civilization.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["interstellar_probe","dyson_swarm","interplanetary_net"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interplanetary_Internet"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Concept only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#interstellar_comms"},{"id":"gw_space_obs","name":"Space gravitational-wave observatory (LISA)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"LISA-class detectors listening to merging black holes across cosmic time. They are precision probes of spacetime's structure.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["w_gravitational_wave_190035","starship_full_reuse","ligo_detection"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"LISA Pathfinder proved the core tech; LISA adopted, not yet launched.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#gw_space_obs"},{"id":"qg_tabletop","name":"Tabletop tests of quantum gravity","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Entangling masses through gravity alone to show, for the first time, whether gravity is quantum.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["neutral_atom","laser","w_bose_einstein_condensate_46202","atom_interferometry"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Quantum_gravity"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Proposed entanglement-via-gravity experiments still being built.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#qg_tabletop"},{"id":"casimir_eng","name":"Engineered negative-energy (Casimir) cavities","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Measuring and shaping the small negative energy densities quantum fields already allow between plates, the only known foothold toward exotic matter.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["quantum","metamaterials_adv"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Casimir_effect"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Casimir forces are measured, but negative energy cannot be engineered usefully.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#casimir_eng"},{"id":"beyond_sm","name":"Physics beyond the Standard Model","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Identifying dark matter, dark energy, and the next layer of particle physics, and with them new possible handles on spacetime.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["w_standard_model_18338","quantum_sim_fields","gw_space_obs","dark_matter_id","next_collider","f_open_inquiry"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Indirect hints (neutrino mass, dark matter); no new theory confirmed.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#beyond_sm"},{"id":"unk_qg","name":"A theory unifying GR and QM that permits spacetime engineering","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"An empirically confirmed theory of quantum gravity that also says how spacetime geometry can be engineered. Without it, FTL remains speculation.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["qg_tabletop","beyond_sm","asi","quantum_sim_fields","w_general_relativity_11452","gw_space_obs","next_collider"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Theory_of_everything"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No confirmed theory unifies GR and QM.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#unk_qg"},{"id":"unk_exotic","name":"Exotic matter / negative energy density at macroscopic scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Matter or field configurations violating the energy conditions over metres, not nanometres. Every known warp or wormhole solution requires it.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["unk_qg","casimir_eng"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Exotic_matter"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No macroscopic negative energy density observed.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#unk_exotic"},{"id":"warp_energy","name":"Warp-metric energy reduced to physical scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Reshaping the warp metric so it needs planetary rather than galactic mass-energy; published refinements have cut estimates by many orders of magnitude.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["unk_qg","solve_everything","warp_math"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alcubierre_drive"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Theory papers have reduced estimates; no experimental path.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#warp_energy"},{"id":"unk_causality","name":"Resolving FTL causality (chronology protection)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Understanding whether faster-than-light travel necessarily allows time-travel paradoxes, and how nature prevents or permits them.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["unk_qg"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Chronology_protection_conjecture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Open theoretical question.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#unk_causality"},{"id":"spacetime_lab","name":"Laboratory spacetime metric engineering","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A measurable, deliberately engineered distortion of spacetime in the lab: the first \"warp field\" experiment.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["unk_exotic","warp_energy","antimatter_factory"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No lab manipulation of spacetime metric.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#spacetime_lab"},{"id":"wormhole_stab","name":"Traversable wormhole stabilization","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Creating and holding open a wormhole throat large enough to pass signals, then matter (Morris–Thorne solution).","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["unk_exotic","spacetime_lab"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wormhole"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Theory only; needs exotic matter.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#wormhole_stab"},{"id":"warp_probe","name":"Uncrewed warp-bubble probe","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"The first craft to make an effective superluminal hop, powered by solar-system-scale energy.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["spacetime_lab","dyson_swarm","interstellar_probe"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Warp_drive"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Needs prerequisites that do not exist.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#warp_probe"},{"id":"crewed_warp_ship","name":"Crewed warp-capable starship","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A ship that carries people to another star within a human lifetime, then within weeks.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["warp_probe","closed_eco","fusion_propulsion","suspended_animation","radiation_shield"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Warp_drive"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Needs prerequisites that do not exist.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#crewed_warp_ship"},{"id":"aging_biomarkers","name":"Validated aging biomarkers as trial endpoints","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Epigenetic and proteomic clocks accepted by regulators as surrogate endpoints, so longevity trials take years instead of decades.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["horvath_clock","tame","ngs","health_monitoring"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Epigenetic_clock"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Epigenetic clocks validated in cohorts; not accepted as regulatory trial endpoints.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#aging_biomarkers"},{"id":"aging_indication","name":"Aging as an approvable indication","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Regulators accept \"slowing aging\" as a treatable target, unlocking investment in therapies that prevent many diseases at once.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["aging_biomarkers","tame","f_permitting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Biogerontology"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Aging is not an approvable indication; trials like TAME are only planned.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#aging_indication"},{"id":"ai_drug_approved","name":"First AI-discovered drug approved","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A drug whose target and molecule were both found by AI, completing regulatory approval.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["rentosertib","ai_drug"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Drug_discovery"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"AI-discovered candidates have positive mid-stage trials; 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not approved.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#in_vivo_cart"},{"id":"universal_flu","name":"Universal flu vaccine","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"One vaccine covering all influenza strains, the template for universal vaccines.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["mrna_vaccine"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Influenza_vaccine"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Broad-spectrum candidates in early-phase trials.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#universal_flu"},{"id":"xeno_routine","name":"Routine xenotransplantation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Gene-edited pig organs as a standard transplant option.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["pig_kidney"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Xenotransplantation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Pig-kidney recipients survived months; formal trials began, not routine.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#xeno_routine"},{"id":"senolytic_tx","name":"Approved senolytic therapies","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Drugs that clear senescent cells and are approved for age-related disease.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["senolytics"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Senolytic"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Small human trials with mixed results; nothing approved.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#senolytic_tx"},{"id":"in_vivo_delivery","name":"Targeted gene delivery to any tissue","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Lipid nanoparticles and engineered capsids that reach any organ, including brain and muscle, on command.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["mrna_vaccine","prime_editing","in_vivo_crispr"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Gene_delivery"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Liver-targeted LNP editing works in patients; most tissues remain out of reach.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#in_vivo_delivery"},{"id":"multiplex_editing","name":"Multiplex somatic genome editing","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Safely rewriting dozens of genes in adult tissue at once, from protective variants to whole-pathway upgrades.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["in_vivo_delivery","prime_editing","prime_edit_in_vivo"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Genome_editing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Multiplex edits in cells and animals; not in human therapy.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#multiplex_editing"},{"id":"virtual_human","name":"Virtual cell to virtual human simulation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Predictive simulation from molecules to organs, so therapies are tested in silico before any patient.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["virtual_cell","ai_compute_abund","alphafold3"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Early AI virtual-cell models; no validated organism-level simulation.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#virtual_human"},{"id":"aging_causal_model","name":"Complete causal model of aging","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A mechanistic map of how the hallmarks of aging interact, showing which interventions reset the system.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["hallmarks_aging","virtual_human","solve_everything","virtual_cell"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hallmarks_of_aging"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Competing hallmark frameworks; no validated causal model.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#aging_causal_model"},{"id":"reprogramming_therapy","name":"Partial reprogramming therapies in humans","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cyclic Yamanaka-factor treatments that restore youthful epigenetic states without causing cancer.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["partial_reprog","osk_vision","in_vivo_delivery","aging_biomarkers"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Rejuvenation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Works in mice; first human trials only starting.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#reprogramming_therapy"},{"id":"immune_rejuv","name":"Immune system rejuvenation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Regrowing the thymus and resetting immune memory, restoring a young immune system.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["in_vivo_cart","reprogramming_therapy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Immunosenescence"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Small thymus-regeneration studies only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#immune_rejuv"},{"id":"cancer_managed","name":"Cancer as a managed condition","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Detection early enough and therapy precise enough that cancer rarely kills.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["mced_scale","in_vivo_cart","ai_drug_approved"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cancer"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Some cancers (e.g. CML) are chronic conditions; most are not.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#cancer_managed"},{"id":"organ_on_demand","name":"Organs on demand","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Grown, printed, or xeno-derived replacement organs for anyone who needs them, matched to their own cells.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["xeno_routine","ipsc","w_3d_printing_229367","bioprinting_vasc","organ_vitrification","autonomous_surgery"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Organ_printing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Organoids and lab-grown tissue patches; no lab-made transplantable solid organ.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#organ_on_demand"},{"id":"bioprinting_vasc","name":"Vascularized bioprinted tissue","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Printing thick tissue with working blood vessels, the bottleneck for printed organs.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["ipsc","w_3d_printing_229367"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/3D_bioprinting"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Vascular channels printed in small lab tissues.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#bioprinting_vasc"},{"id":"longevity","name":"Longevity escape velocity","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Life expectancy rises by more than a year per year: therapies outpace aging.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["reprogramming_therapy","senolytic_tx","aging_indication","cancer_managed","immune_rejuv","multiplex_editing","ai_drug_approved","mito_repair","aggregate_clearance"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Longevity_escape_velocity"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Life expectancy gains still under a year per year.","tier":2,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#longevity"},{"id":"brain_rejuv","name":"Brain rejuvenation that preserves identity","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Restoring youthful neurons and synapses while keeping the memories and personality they encode. Deep unknowns remain about how identity is stored.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["reprogramming_therapy","connectome_human","aging_causal_model","neurodegeneration_cured"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neuroregeneration"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No intervention rejuvenates the human brain.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#brain_rejuv"},{"id":"cell_repair_nano","name":"Cell-repair nanomachines","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Medical nanobots that patrol tissues, removing damage and repairing DNA (Freitas's nanomedicine program).","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["programmable_assemblers","virtual_human","nano_safety"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Nanomedicine"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Concept only.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#cell_repair_nano"},{"id":"bci_highbw","name":"High-bandwidth brain–computer interfaces","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Implants with tens of thousands of channels, reading and writing neural activity at the speed of speech and beyond.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["neuralink_human","braingate","brain_computer"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-28 · Neuralink VOICE trial: one ALS participant at 75 wpm, 5.8% WER in week one (Neuralink X post, NEALS 2026; company-reported, n=1); no level change","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#bci_highbw"},{"id":"bci_merge","name":"Neural integration (human–AI merge)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Thought-speed, two-way links between human cortex and AI systems that feel like extensions of the self.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["bci_highbw","agi","ai_alignment","machine_ethics_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neuroprosthetics"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"BCIs restore lost function; no cognitive augmentation shown.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#bci_merge"},{"id":"connectome_fly","name":"Whole-brain connectome of a fly","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Every neuron and synapse of an adult fruit-fly brain mapped (FlyWire, 2024), a first full wiring diagram of a complex brain.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["neuron_doctrine","deep_learning","w_cryogenic_electron_microscopy_5190506"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Connectome"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Complete adult fly connectome published (FlyWire) and now in routine research use.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#connectome_fly"},{"id":"connectome_mouse","name":"Whole mouse-brain connectome","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Synapse-level wiring of a mammalian brain. Cubic-millimetre pieces have already been mapped (MICrONS).","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["connectome_fly","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Connectome"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Cubic-millimetre mouse cortex mapped (MICrONS); whole brain not yet.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#connectome_mouse"},{"id":"connectome_human","name":"Human connectome at synaptic resolution","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Mapping all of a human brain's roughly 86 billion neurons and their synapses, a zettabyte-scale imaging and AI problem.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["connectome_mouse","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Human_Connectome_Project"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"One cubic millimetre of human cortex mapped (H01).","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#connectome_human"},{"id":"brain_molecular","name":"Molecular-state brain mapping","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Recording synapse strengths, receptor types, and gene expression, not just wiring, which emulation likely needs.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["connectome_mouse","ngs"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Spatial_transcriptomics"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Expansion-microscopy methods in small volumes.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#brain_molecular"},{"id":"wbe_animal","name":"Whole-brain emulation of a simple animal","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A simulated worm, fly, or mouse brain that behaves like the original in a virtual body.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["connectome_fly","virtual_human"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/OpenWorm"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Partial worm and fly models; no faithful whole-animal emulation.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#wbe_animal"},{"id":"neuromorphic_scale","name":"Brain-scale neuromorphic hardware","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Hardware that runs about 10^15 synapses in real time at practical power.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["neuromorphic","photonic_compute","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Billion-neuron neuromorphic systems built (Intel Hala Point); far below brain scale.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#neuromorphic_scale"},{"id":"nondestructive_scan","name":"Non-destructive whole-brain readout","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Reading a living brain's full state without destroying it, through nanoscale probes or new imaging physics.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["cell_repair_nano","bci_highbw","brain_molecular"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No method reads synapses in a living brain.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#nondestructive_scan"},{"id":"wbe_human","name":"Whole-brain emulation of a human","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Running a human mind's dynamics on computers with functional fidelity.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["connectome_human","brain_molecular","wbe_animal","neuromorphic_scale","full_vr","unk_consciousness"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mind_uploading"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Depends on scans and models that do not exist.","tier":3,"milestone":"tech","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#wbe_human"},{"id":"unk_consciousness","name":"Hard problem of consciousness (Chalmers 1995)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Why physical processing is accompanied by experience at all (Chalmers, 1995), and a theory predicting which systems are conscious and whether an emulation or gradual replacement preserves the person. This gates identity continuity for uploading. 'Solved' may never be cleanly provable: progress may come as converging, tested theories rather than a proof.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["wbe_animal","solve_everything","brain_molecular","f_open_inquiry","iit_gwt_adversarial","ncc","nagel_bat"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Hard_problem_of_consciousness"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Adversarial theory tests have started; no accepted theory.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#unk_consciousness"},{"id":"planet_climate_models","name":"Planetary climate engineering models","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Climate and atmosphere models accurate enough to engineer a planet, tested first on Earth and Mars data.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["graphcast","gencast","ai_compute_abund"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/General_circulation_model"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Mars and exoplanet climate models used routinely; terraforming scenarios exploratory.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#planet_climate_models"},{"id":"extremophile_eng","name":"Engineered pioneer organisms","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Microbes and lichens designed to survive Martian cold, radiation, and perchlorate soil while making oxygen and soil.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio","crispr","w_xenobot_82309052","minimal_cell"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Extremophile"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Engineered extremophiles in lab Mars-simulant studies.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#extremophile_eng"},{"id":"supergreenhouse","name":"Engineered super-greenhouse gas production","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Factories releasing fluorinated gases to warm Mars by tens of degrees.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["mars_city","isru","quantum_chem_exact"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Terraforming_of_Mars"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Paper studies of fluorinated and nanoparticle warming agents.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#supergreenhouse"},{"id":"orbital_mirrors","name":"Orbital mirrors and solettas","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Large thin-film mirrors that focus sunlight on polar caps, releasing frozen CO2.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["space_industry","metamaterials_adv","self_rep_space_factory"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"One 20-metre orbital mirror test (Znamya-2); nothing at scale.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#orbital_mirrors"},{"id":"mars_magnetosphere","name":"Artificial magnetosphere at Mars L1","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A superconducting dipole shield at Mars–Sun L1 that protects a thickened atmosphere from solar-wind stripping.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["hts_magnets","space_nuclear","space_industry"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Magnetosphere"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Concept studies only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mars_magnetosphere"},{"id":"volatile_delivery","name":"Volatile delivery: redirecting icy bodies","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Steering comets or Kuiper-belt ice to deliver water and nitrogen to Mars. The energy and precision needed are vast.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["fusion_propulsion","asteroid_mining","self_rep_space_factory","planetary_defense"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"One asteroid deflected (DART); moving icy bodies is far beyond that.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#volatile_delivery"},{"id":"mars_atmo_thicken","name":"Mars atmosphere thickened to survivable pressure","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Raising surface pressure above the Armstrong limit so people need only oxygen masks.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["supergreenhouse","orbital_mirrors","volatile_delivery","mars_magnetosphere"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Not attempted.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mars_atmo_thicken"},{"id":"biosphere_seeding","name":"Ecopoiesis: seeding a self-sustaining biosphere","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Establishing a succession of engineered ecosystems that build soil and oxygen over generations.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["extremophile_eng","mars_atmo_thicken","planet_climate_models","closed_eco"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Not attempted.","tier":3,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#biosphere_seeding"},{"id":"planetary_stewardship","name":"Planetary stewardship institutions","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Governance able to manage century-scale planetary projects and Earth's own climate, with legitimacy across generations.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["simulationism","mars_city","planet_climate_models"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Treaties exist for planetary protection, not for engineering planets.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#planetary_stewardship"},{"id":"food_abundance","name":"Food abundance via fermentation and cultivated food","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Protein, fats, and sugars brewed from electricity, CO2, and microbes, decoupling food from farmland.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["precision_ferm","synthetic_bio","haber"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cellular_agriculture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Precision-fermented proteins sold; cultivated meat in tiny volumes.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#food_abundance"},{"id":"water_abundance","name":"Water abundance","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Desalination and atmospheric water harvesting cheap enough that fresh water is never scarce.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["energy_too_cheap","solar_tw","f_cheap_energy"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Desalination"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Large-scale desalination supplies most domestic water in some countries (e.g. Israel).","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#water_abundance"},{"id":"agent_societies","name":"LLM-agent simulated societies","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Populations of AI agents with realistic preferences, used to study how people respond to rules (generative agents, 2023).","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["ai_agents","w_cellular_automaton_189156","game_theory"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Agent-based_model"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Simulations of 1,000 agents modelled on real people reproduce survey answers.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#agent_societies"},{"id":"econ_twins","name":"Digital twins of economies and cities","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"High-fidelity simulations of a real economy or city, calibrated on live data.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["agent_societies","ai_compute_abund","digital_public_infra","global_connect"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Digital_twin"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"City digital twins operate (e.g. Virtual Singapore); economy twins are research.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#econ_twins"},{"id":"simulationism","name":"Simulationism: policy tested on simulated societies","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Every major law is trialled first on validated simulated societies, then piloted, then measured. Jason sees this as the first step toward effective government.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["econ_twins","evidence_policy","ai_alignment","charter_cities"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Agent simulations are used as research tools, not as a policy gate.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#simulationism"},{"id":"evidence_policy","name":"Evidence-based policy at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Policy randomized trials, pre-registration, and sunset clauses as standard practice.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["rct","ebm","progress_studies","f_integrity","f_education"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Evidence-based_policy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"RCT-backed programmes scaled in some countries; not standard practice.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#evidence_policy"},{"id":"digital_public_infra","name":"India Stack","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Open digital identity, payments, and data rails that make public services instant and cheap.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["aadhaar","upi","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Aadhaar and UPI serve over a billion people.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#digital_public_infra"},{"id":"prediction_markets","name":"Policy prediction markets and forecasting","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Money & Markets","domainId":"money","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Markets and forecasting tournaments that aggregate dispersed knowledge about policy outcomes.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["game_theory","hayek"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Prediction_market"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Large public markets now legal in places; little formal policy use.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/money-and-markets#prediction_markets"},{"id":"futarchy","name":"Futarchy: vote on values, bet on beliefs","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Robin Hanson's proposal: citizens choose goals, and policies are adopted when markets predict they will advance them.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["prediction_markets","econ_twins","f_trust"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Small on-chain experiments only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#futarchy"},{"id":"ai_civil_service","name":"AI-administered permitting and services","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Permits, benefits, and filings handled in minutes by audited AI agents.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["ai_agents","digital_public_infra","formal_verif_scale","f_integrity"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/E-government"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Government AI pilots for permitting and services; not systemic.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#ai_civil_service"},{"id":"rules_as_code","name":"Machine-readable, verified law","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Legislation written as executable, formally checked code, so contradictions and loopholes are found before passage.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["formal_verif_scale","constitution","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Some tax and benefit rules encoded and used for simulation (e.g. OpenFisca); not law of record.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#rules_as_code"},{"id":"deliberation_scale","name":"AI-mediated deliberation at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Tools that let millions of people find common ground (vTaiwan, Polis), consent at scale.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["reasoning_models","democracy","universal_translation","f_education","f_trust"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Deliberative_democracy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"vTaiwan/Polis and AI-mediation experiments; not routine.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#deliberation_scale"},{"id":"zk_identity","name":"Privacy-preserving identity and voting","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Zero-knowledge proofs let citizens prove eligibility and vote verifiably without exposing personal data.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["ethereum","pqc","digital_public_infra","secure_compute"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Zero-knowledge_proof"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Zero-knowledge ID and digital-wallet pilots; no national voting use.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#zk_identity"},{"id":"interp","name":"Mechanistic interpretability","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Reading the algorithms inside neural networks feature by feature, so AI reasoning can be audited rather than trusted blindly.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["deep_learning","transformer"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Feature and circuit tracing on frontier models; no full understanding.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#interp"},{"id":"secure_compute","name":"Verifiable AI hardware and confidential computing","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Chips that attest what model they run and on what data. This is the hardware root of trust for AI governance and private voting.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["pqc","chiplets"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Confidential_computing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Confidential-computing GPUs and TEEs are in commercial cloud use.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#secure_compute"},{"id":"compute_governance","name":"International AI compute governance","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":8,"summary":"Treaties and monitoring of frontier compute that make advanced AI development legible and cooperative.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Effective, efficient government, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["ai_policy","chip_controls","secure_compute","f_integrity","f_peace"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Unilateral export controls; no international regime.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#compute_governance"},{"id":"global_connect","name":"Global gigabit connectivity","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Satellite and terrestrial networks bring every person online at broadband speed, the substrate for digital government and AI services.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["starlink","starlink_mobile_11m"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Satellite_internet_constellation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Satellite and fibre broadband reach most regions; gigabit not universal.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#global_connect"},{"id":"interplanetary_net","name":"Interplanetary internet","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Laser relays and delay-tolerant networking linking Earth, Moon, and Mars.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["global_connect","starlink"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Interplanetary_Internet"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Delay-tolerant networking on ISS and deep-space laser link tests.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#interplanetary_net"},{"id":"universal_translation","name":"Universal real-time translation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Information","domainId":"computing","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Speech-to-speech translation across every language in real time, removing language as a barrier to deliberation.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["transformer","reasoning_models"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Machine_translation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Real-time speech translation ships in consumer devices.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/information#universal_translation"},{"id":"full_vr","name":"Full-sensory immersive virtual worlds","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Architecture & the Arts","domainId":"arts","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Virtual environments indistinguishable from reality to the senses: virtual bodies for emulated minds and new art forms.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["world_models","bci_highbw"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Virtual_reality"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Audio-visual VR only; touch, smell and taste in lab prototypes.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/architecture-and-the-arts#full_vr"},{"id":"long_storage","name":"Long-duration grid storage","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Week-long storage (iron-air, thermal, pumped) that makes intermittent power firm.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["sodium_battery","megapack"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Grid_energy_storage"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"First multi-day iron-air plants built; not yet grid-scale.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#long_storage"},{"id":"green_h2","name":"Green hydrogen and e-fuels at scale","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cheap electrolytic hydrogen and synthetic fuels for steel, fertilizer, aviation, and rockets.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["solar_tw","w_electrolysis_64403"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Green_hydrogen"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Electrolysis plants at tens to hundreds of MW; tiny share of hydrogen.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#green_h2"},{"id":"dac_gigaton","name":"Gigaton-scale carbon removal","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Direct air capture and mineralization at gigatons per year, practice for planet-scale atmospheric engineering.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["energy_too_cheap","green_h2"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Direct_air_capture"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Direct air capture at kiloton scale; a million times short of gigatons.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#dac_gigaton"},{"id":"tritium_cycle","name":"Fusion fuel cycle (tritium breeding, helium-3)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Energy","domainId":"energy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":3,"summary":"Closing the fuel cycle for D–T fusion and sourcing helium-3 for advanced fuels.","verdict":"Precursor to: .","dependencies":["fusion_power","lunar_base"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Breeding_blanket"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Breeding blankets tested in mockups; no closed fuel cycle.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/energy#tritium_cycle"},{"id":"molecular_motors","name":"Synthetic molecular motors","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Chemist-designed rotors, shuttles, and switches (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2016), the first artificial molecular machines.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["chemistry","w_fullerene_178026"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Molecular_machine"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Synthetic molecular motors made and studied in the lab (2016 Nobel); no applications.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#molecular_motors"},{"id":"atomic_imaging","name":"Atomic-resolution chemical imaging","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Seeing every atom and bond in a working molecular system, the quality-control tool for atomically precise manufacturing.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Post-scarcity energy and matter, Mind uploading / human–AI merge, Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["w_cryogenic_electron_microscopy_5190506","w_electron_microscope_132560"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Electron_microscope"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Cryo-EM and atomic-resolution microscopy are routine.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#atomic_imaging"},{"id":"self_healing","name":"Self-healing materials","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Chemistry & Materials","domainId":"materials","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Polymers, concretes, and alloys that repair cracks autonomously, critical for structures far from human maintenance.","verdict":"Precursor to: Nanomachines (molecular assemblers).","dependencies":["materials_genome"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Self-healing_material"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Self-healing coatings and polymers in niche products.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/chemistry-and-materials#self_healing"},{"id":"genome_writing","name":"Whole-genome synthesis","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Writing entire genomes from scratch (synthetic yeast, then multicellular genomes) so organisms can be designed, not just edited.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio","ngs","dna_storage"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Synthetic_genomics"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Synthetic bacterial and yeast genomes built; not routine.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#genome_writing"},{"id":"minimal_cell","name":"Designed synthetic cells","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Cells built from designed parts, the chassis for pioneer organisms and living factories.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["genome_writing","protein_machines"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artificial_cell"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"A minimal synthetic bacterium (JCVI-syn3) lives; no fully designed cells.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#minimal_cell"},{"id":"radiation_resist","name":"Radiation-resistant human cells","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Borrowing DNA-protection genes (such as tardigrade Dsup) and repair pathways to protect astronauts and slow damage-driven aging.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["multiplex_editing","genome_writing"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Radiation_resistance"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Tardigrade protein (Dsup) protects human cells in culture.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#radiation_resist"},{"id":"suspended_animation","name":"Suspended animation and hibernation","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Safely pausing human metabolism for months, for emergency medicine and long voyages.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["virtual_human","organ_vitrification"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Suspended_animation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Emergency preservation trial in trauma; no long-term human stasis.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#suspended_animation"},{"id":"organ_vitrification","name":"Organ cryopreservation and rewarming","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Banking organs indefinitely by vitrification with uniform nanoparticle rewarming, already shown for rat kidneys.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["ipsc"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cryopreservation"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"A rat kidney was vitrified, rewarmed and transplanted; no human organs.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#organ_vitrification"},{"id":"neurodegeneration_cured","name":"Neurodegeneration cured","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Stopping and reversing Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS, a prerequisite for a healthy brain over centuries.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["lecanemab","multiplex_editing","ai_drug_approved"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Neurodegenerative_disease"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Approved antibodies modestly slow Alzheimer's; nothing cures it.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#neurodegeneration_cured"},{"id":"mito_repair","name":"Mitochondrial repair","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Replacing or backing up damaged mitochondrial DNA (allotopic expression), one of the hallmarks of aging.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["in_vivo_delivery","multiplex_editing"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Mitochondrial transfer studies only.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#mito_repair"},{"id":"aggregate_clearance","name":"Clearing aging aggregates","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Engineered enzymes and antibodies that remove lipofuscin, amyloids, and crosslinks that cells cannot clear themselves.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["ai_drug_approved","protein_machines"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Lipofuscin"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Antibodies clear amyloid plaques in patients; other aggregates remain.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#aggregate_clearance"},{"id":"health_monitoring","name":"Continuous molecular health monitoring","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Wearables and implants tracking biomarkers continuously, so disease is caught as a trend and not as a crisis.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["smartphone","galleri"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Wearable_technology"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Glucose monitors are mass-market; multi-analyte sensors still in trials.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#health_monitoring"},{"id":"microbiome_eng","name":"Engineered microbiome therapies","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Life Sciences","domainId":"life","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Designed gut and skin microbial communities that treat disease and support closed-loop life support.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["synthetic_bio","ngs"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Microbiome"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"deploying","progressNote":"Approved microbiome therapies for C. difficile; narrow use.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/life-sciences#microbiome_eng"},{"id":"dexterous_hands","name":"Human-level dexterous robot hands","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":7,"summary":"Robot hands that manipulate anything a human can, the gap between today's humanoids and a general workforce.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Unlimited healthy human lifespan, Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["rt2","sim2real"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Lab hands do in-hand manipulation; not at human level.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#dexterous_hands"},{"id":"construction_robots","name":"Autonomous construction robots","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Robots that 3D-print and assemble buildings, roads, and landing pads, on Earth and off it.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["printed_house","general_robots","f_permitting"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Construction_3D_printing"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"3D-printed homes and robotic excavation on real sites; small share.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#construction_robots"},{"id":"autonomous_surgery","name":"Autonomous robotic surgery","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Manufacturing & Robotics","domainId":"robotics","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Surgical robots that plan and execute operations under supervision, making transplants and implants routine everywhere.","verdict":"Precursor to: Unlimited healthy human lifespan.","dependencies":["da_vinci","general_robots","virtual_human"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Robotic_surgery"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"2026-10-28 · Exin Therapeutics claims an AI agent planned and drove a stereotaxic gene-vector injection in an epileptic mouse (YC/founder post; claimed, unreviewed); no level change","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/manufacturing-and-robotics#autonomous_surgery"},{"id":"space_resource_law","name":"Space resource property law","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"Clear international rules for extracting and owning space resources (Artemis Accords and successors).","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["wto","iss","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Artemis_Accords"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"National laws and Artemis Accords in force; nothing extracted under them.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#space_resource_law"},{"id":"planetary_defense","name":"Planetary defense (asteroid deflection)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Military","domainId":"military","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Detecting and deflecting hazardous asteroids, shown by NASA's DART impact in 2022. The same skills later move icy bodies on purpose.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["reusable_rocket","launch_cost","f_peace"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Asteroid_impact_avoidance"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"DART changed an asteroid's orbit; no operational system.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/military#planetary_defense"},{"id":"mass_driver","name":"Lunar mass driver","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":6,"summary":"An electromagnetic launcher hurling lunar material to orbit cheaply, the industrial artery of O'Neill's space economy.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming, Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["lunar_base","hts_magnets"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Mass_driver"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Electromagnetic launch studies and small prototypes.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#mass_driver"},{"id":"radiation_shield","name":"Deep-space radiation shielding","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"Active magnetic and passive shields protecting crews on years-long missions.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL), Terraforming.","dependencies":["hts_magnets","metamaterials_adv"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Cosmic_ray"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Shielding materials tested; deep-space crew protection unsolved.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#radiation_shield"},{"id":"oneill_habitat","name":"Rotating space habitats","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Transport & Space","domainId":"transport","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"O'Neill cylinders with artificial gravity, homes for millions off Earth.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming.","dependencies":["space_industry","mass_driver","closed_eco"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/O'Neill_cylinder"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"Design studies only.","tier":2,"milestone":"space","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/transport-and-space#oneill_habitat"},{"id":"atom_interferometry","name":"Atom-interferometer gravity sensors","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Matter-wave interferometers measuring gravity and spacetime with record precision.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["laser","w_bose_einstein_condensate_46202"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atom_interferometer"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Commercial quantum gravimeters exist; space use experimental.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#atom_interferometry"},{"id":"optical_clocks","name":"Networked optical atomic clocks","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Clocks so precise that they sense centimetre changes in gravitational potential, a new instrument for testing relativity.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["laser","global_connect"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Atomic_clock"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Clocks compared over fibre networks; second not yet redefined.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#optical_clocks"},{"id":"dark_matter_id","name":"Dark matter identified","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Detecting what dark matter is, the first new ingredient of the universe since the Standard Model.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["atom_interferometry","optical_clocks","quantum_sim_fields","next_collider","icecube"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Dark_matter"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"none","progressNote":"No direct detection.","tier":3,"milestone":"open","distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#dark_matter_id"},{"id":"next_collider","name":"Next-generation collider (FCC / CEPC)","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"A ~90 km collider (CERN's FCC or China's CEPC) to study the Higgs with precision and then reach ~100 TeV, an order of magnitude beyond the LHC, using high-field superconducting magnets. Both are at the planning stage.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["w_standard_model_18338","hts_magnets","f_long_horizon","lhc","higgs_discovery"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Future_Circular_Collider"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Feasibility studies (FCC, CEPC); none approved for construction.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#next_collider"},{"id":"warp_math","name":"Rigorous warp and wormhole mathematics","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Math & Physics","domainId":"science","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"AI-assisted, formally verified analysis of which spacetime geometries are physically allowed and at what energy cost.","verdict":"Precursor to: Faster-than-light travel (effective FTL).","dependencies":["w_general_relativity_11452","ai_run_math","lean"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Alcubierre_drive"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Theory papers on warp metrics; little formal verification.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/math-and-physics#warp_math"},{"id":"digital_mind_ethics","name":"Ethics and law of digital minds","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Personhood, rights, and consent frameworks for emulated and merged minds, so uploading is a choice protected by law.","verdict":"Precursor to: Mind uploading / human–AI merge.","dependencies":["unk_consciousness","rules_as_code","machine_ethics_law"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"early","progressNote":"Academic work on AI moral status; no law.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#digital_mind_ethics"},{"id":"charter_cities","name":"Charter cities and governance sandboxes","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":5,"summary":"New jurisdictions that pilot rules at city scale and measure outcomes, the real-world test after simulation.","verdict":"Precursor to: Terraforming, Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["sez","f_rule_of_law"],"region":"global","sources":[],"sourcePrimary":"none","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"A few charter-city projects (e.g. Próspera) operate; tiny scale.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#charter_cities"},{"id":"liquid_democracy","name":"Liquid democracy","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Delegable, revocable votes that combine direct and representative democracy.","verdict":"Precursor to: Effective, efficient government.","dependencies":["deliberation_scale","zk_identity"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Liquid_democracy"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Used in party and organisation votes; not in public government.","tier":1,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#liquid_democracy"},{"id":"automation_dividend","name":"Automation dividend","year":null,"date":null,"approx":false,"domain":"Philosophy & Institutions","domainId":"philosophy","status":"future","statusRaw":"speculative","category":"advance","impact":4,"summary":"Sharing the output of a robot economy with every citizen, so abundance is universal and not concentrated.","verdict":"Precursor to: Post-scarcity energy and matter.","dependencies":["robot_economy","digital_public_infra","f_honest_money"],"region":"global","sources":["https://grokipedia.com/page/Universal_basic_income"],"sourcePrimary":"grokipedia","confidence":{"claimed":false,"yearCheck":"unverified","scoring":"curated","verdictAuto":false,"fiction":false},"progress":"demonstrated","progressNote":"Cash-transfer pilots and resource dividends; no automation dividend at scale.","tier":2,"milestone":null,"distance":null,"stage":null,"url":"https://expandingfrontier.ai/domain/philosophy-and-institutions#automation_dividend"}]}